InteractionsGuide Index Page

 
Case Analysis Toolclose
Enter Each Substance:


Analysis Search Terms:

Zinc

Nutrient Name: Zinc.
Elemental Symbol: Zn.
Forms: Zinc acetate, zinc arginate, zinc ascorbate, zinc aspartate, zinc carbonate, zinc citrate, zinc gluconate, zinc glycerate, zinc glycinate, zinc histidinate, zinc lactate, zinc methionate, zinc monomethionine, zinc oxide, zinc picolinate, zinc selenate, zinc sulfate, zinc undecylenate.

Summary Table
nutrient description

Chemistry and Forms

Zinc acetate, zinc arginate, zinc ascorbate, zinc aspartate, zinc carbonate, zinc citrate, zinc gluconate, zinc glycerate, zinc glycinate, zinc histidinate, zinc lactate, zinc methionate, zinc monomethionine, zinc oxide, zinc picolinate, zinc selenate, zinc sulfate, zinc undecylenate.

Physiology and Function

Zinc is required throughout the human body for protein synthesis, DNA synthesis, cell division, hormonal activity, neurotransmitter signaling, and other critical functions. Zinc's essential role in many biological processes is illustrated by its participation in the activity of up to 300 enzymes, in all known classes. Although its activity in immune function has often received the greatest attention, zinc is required for normal physiological functioning of most body systems, particularly growth and development, neurological function, and reproduction, as well as numerous catalytic, structural, and regulatory functions at the cellular level.

Absorption of zinc occurs both by carrier-mediated and energy-dependent saturable processes and by simple (nonsaturable) diffusion throughout the length of the small intestine, primarily in the jejunum. Absorption is regulated homeostatically, in a range of 2% to 70%, depending on concomitant intake and zinc status in healthy individuals, and is optimal at an intragastric pH of 3 or less because solubility of zinc salts is affected by pH. 1 Zinc is actively transported with albumin, amino acids, and an α2-macroglobulin; transport is regulated, in part, by sulfur-containing amino acids. Bioavailability is mainly influenced by zinc status and form; however, red wine, soy protein, and glucose can enhance zinc absorption, and iron, copper, calcium, fiber, and phytates (a component of cereal grain fiber) can inhibit absorption. Elimination of zinc is primarily through the feces, with minor amounts excreted through the urine and perspiration.

The average adult human body contains a total of 1.4 to 2.5 grams of zinc, with 60% to 65% stored in skeletal muscle, 30% in bone, particularly marrow, and 4% to 6% in the skin. The brain (especially the hippocampus and cerebral cortex) is the organ with the highest zinc concentrations, with enzymatic zinc (85%-95%) and synaptic zinc constituting two separate pools of brain zinc. Zinc is also found in relatively high concentrations in the eye (particularly iris, macula of retina, and choroid), liver, spleen, pancreas, kidney, prostatic fluid, and spermatozoa. Both red blood cells (RBCs) and white blood cells (WBCs) contain relatively high concentrations of zinc.

Zinc is a cofactor in the synthesis of proteins, fats, and cholesterol, and as a metalloenzyme activator, zinc is associated with the activity of more enzymes than any other mineral. Carboxypeptidase is necessary for the digestion of dietary proteins. Several dehydrogenases require zinc, including alcohol, retinol, and sorbitol dehydrogenase. Carbonic anhydrase, a zinc enzyme, catalyzes the interconversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) and bicarbonate (HCO3) and thereby contributes to acid-base balance in RBCs. Cytochrome c is essential to electron transport and energy production. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), which contains both zinc and copper, inactivates free radicals in cytosol. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) liberates inorganic phosphates for use in bone metabolism. The activity of these enzymes may be hampered by disruptions in zinc availability that are subclinical in degree (far short of frank deficiency) and conversely, are enhanced by increased zinc nutriture.

The immune, antioxidant, and detoxification systems require zinc, in ready availability and broad distribution, to maintain their functions at healthy levels. Immune function depends directly on zinc status in many ways through its central role in the production, regulation, activity, and equilibrium of both cellular and humoral immune responses, particularly as mediated by the thymus gland. Zinc participates in the regulation of a wide range of immune functions, including T lymphocytes, CD4 cells, natural killer (NK) T cells, interleukin-2 (IL-2), and SOD. As early manifestations of zinc deficiency, lymphopenia and thymic atrophy follow quickly on decreases in precursor T and B cells in the bone marrow, and IL-2 production by helper T (Th) lymphocytes will drop as lymphocyte proliferation decreases and cell-mediated immune function declines. Thus, decreases in available zinc may contribute to a premature transition from efficient Th1-dependent cellular immune activity to Th2-dependent humoral immune functions. The presence of adequate Zn2+and nitrogen oxide tilt the thymic balance toward Th1 and IL-2 as nitrogen oxide releases Zn2+from metallothionein, an intracellular storage molecule, and together they cooperate with glutathione (GSH) and GSSG, its oxidized form, to regulate immune responses to antigens. Conversely, a shift toward Th2 will be characterized by elevations in levels of IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, leukotriene-B4(LTB4), and prostaglandin E2(PGE2). Zinc is well known as a cofactor for SOD, a key antioxidant enzyme, but it also functions as a cofactor for alcohol metabolism and delta-6-desaturase (involved in PGE1synthesis). Among its activities in protecting against heavy metal toxicity, such as cadmium and lead, zinc's unique relationship with copper gives it a special capacity in countering toxic accumulation in Wilson's disease. Vitamin A levels are also regulated by a zinc-controlled release of hepatic stores.

Zinc plays diverse regulatory and support roles throughout the endocrine and reproductive systems as well as cell growth and differentiation processes. Proper functioning of genetic activities at many levels requires zinc, including the synthesis of DNA and RNA, protein synthesis, cellular division, and gene expression. Moreover, in its antioxidant capacity, zinc protects DNA from damage caused by oxidative stress. Zinc is necessary for the maturation of sperm, for ovulation, and for fertilization and normal fetal development. Zinc inhibits the activity of 5-alpha-reductase, the enzyme that irreversibly converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, a form that strongly binds to prostate tissue and thus contributes to hypertrophy. The hypogonadism observed in zinc deficiency may be related to impaired leptin secretion, which is also associated with zinc deficiency. Zinc promotes the conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) and enhances vitamin D activity. Thus, zinc plays a central role in normal growth and maturation, at cellular and systemic levels.

Synaptic zinc plays a modulatory role in synaptic neurotransmission. In the brain, zinc-containing neurons are found primarily in limbic and cerebrocortical systems. All neurons bearing synaptic zinc are glutamatergic. Synaptically released zinc plays a central role in brain excitability through modulation of ionic channels and amino acid receptors, including alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors. In particular, zinc acts as a potent antagonist of the glutamate-NMDA receptor. Zinc also induces brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene expression in the hippocampal/cortical neurons. 2 Anorexia, dysphoria, impaired learning, diminished cognitive function, and other behavioral disturbances and mood disorders, as well as some neurological disorders (e.g., epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease), can be associated with zinc depletion and alterations of brain zinc homeostasis. 3,4

Zinc participates in the somatic interface with the environment through both the superficial tissues and the sensory organs. In addition to its presence in the skin and release through perspiration, the presence of zinc in the nails and hair is also notable (with deficiency indicated by leukonychia). Zinc's crucial role in skin health and wound healing is inherently related to its physiological and therapeutic activity in epithelial tissue. As mentioned, zinc is particularly concentrated in various components of the eye, where it is essential to dark adaptation and night vision. It also participates in the regulation of sensory perception through taste and smell. Not only is zinc crucial for taste perception, especially of salt, but taste response (or lack thereof) to zinc itself is predictive of deficiency status.

nutrient in clinical practice

Known or Potential Therapeutic Uses

Proposed therapeutic and preventive uses of zinc range from the more common, and often self-prescribed, administration for prevention and mitigation of the common cold, treatment of acne and other dermatological conditions, enhancement of wound healing and immune response, to more clinical applications for high-risk mothers and malnourished infants, HIV and other viral infections, diminished fertility and reproductive gland function, gastric and bowel conditions, macular degeneration and other ophthalmologic diseases, and inflammatory processes such as rheumatoid arthritis. Notably, zinc administration can enhance muscular strength and endurance in healthy individuals, even in the absence of zinc deficiency. 5 Pharmacological doses of zinc are administered for the treatment of acrodermatitis enteropathica (clinical zinc deficiency caused by congenital zinc malabsorption), to ascertain level of zinc absorption, and Wilson's disease, to prevent the copper accumulation in tissues. Effective treatment of mild or moderate zinc depletion typically requires months of zinc administration to reverse, and severe zinc depletion can require a year or more to resolve in some cases.

Historical/Ethnomedicine Precedent

Recorded use of zinc dates back to Egypt, circa 2000BCE, in the Western medical tradition. Known primarily for its use in skin lotions in both classical and folk traditions, its presence as zinc ore in calamine lotion is perhaps its most familiar form in recent popular memory and usage. Zincum metallicum and other forms of zinc were introduced into homeopathic medicine by Franz (1827), provings were conducted by Hahnemann (1839), and a large and systematic catalog of toxicology was assembled in the materia medica texts of Allen and others throughout the 1800s; these agents have been included in the official Homeopathic Pharmacopeia of the United States for more than 100 years. In the 1870s, W.H. Burt, 6 a highly respected homeopathic physician, wrote: “Zinc corresponds to diseases of the nervous system, the same as Iron does to diseases of the blood.”

Although often selected because of their morphological similarity to male sexual organs (or “signature”), the recommendation of mussels (especially oysters and geoducks), seeds, and nuts as male tonics in many traditional systems of nutritional therapy may derive, at least in good part, from relatively high concentrations of zinc (and essential fatty acids). In pharmacognosy, the standard term for seed is semen, with both meanings related to substances rich in zinc.

Possible Uses

Acne vulgaris, acrodermatitis enteropathica, ageusia or hypogeusia (loss or diminishment of taste sensation), amenorrhea, anorexia nervosa, anosmia (lack of ability to smell), aphthous stomatitis (topical), athletic performance, attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), benign prostatic hyperplasia, birth defects (risk reduction), cataracts, celiac disease, cervical dysplasia, childhood intelligence (deficiency), cirrhosis (deficiency), common cold, contact dermatitis, Crohn's disease, cystic fibrosis, dermatitis herpetiformis (deficiency), diaper rash, diabetes mellitus (types 1 and 2), diarrhea (including with HIV), diverticulitis, Down syndrome, eczema, gastric ulcer healing, gastritis, halitosis, hepatitis, herpes simplex infection, HIV support, hypoglycemia, hypothyroidism, immune support/enhancement, infection, insulin resistance syndrome, lead and cadmium toxicity, macular degeneration, male infertility, male sexual function, minor injuries, night blindness, Osgood-Schlatter disease (with selenium), osteoarthritis, otitis media (recurrent), peptic ulcer, periodontal disease, pharyngitis, psoriasis, radiation therapy support, rheumatoid arthritis, sickle cell anemia, skin ulcers, thalassemia (deficiency), ulcerative colitis, warts, Wilson's disease, wound healing (oral and topical).

Deficiency Symptoms

Primary (dietary) zinc deficiency in humans was first described in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis (in 1956) and then in rural Iranian children and Iranian and Egyptian farmers with inadequate nutritional intake in the early 1960s. Primary deficiency has largely been considered a significant risk in individuals and populations with malnourishment or compromised physiology. However, awareness continues to grow as to the full extent of at-risk populations from a broad range of age groups, socioeconomic conditions, and living situations. Foods grown in nutrient-depleted soil and processed foods are often low in zinc. In addition to protein/calorie-restricted diets, potential deficiencies from diets replete with zinc-poor foods but limited in foods rich in highly bioavailable zinc are often aggravated by foods that are rich in inhibitors of zinc absorption. Infants, impoverished and elderly persons with poor nutritional status, and those consuming excessive alcohol or with renal and hepatic disease are clearly susceptible, but seemingly healthy individuals with unbalanced nutritional intakes, elevated demands, or adverse genetic characteristics may be equally at risk. Survey data indicate that more than 60% of adults (≥20 years) in the United States do not consume dietary zinc at the level of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA). Even by following the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) food pyramid recommendations of the past several decades, an individual will not obtain adequate zinc intake on a daily basis. Moreover, some young women who avoid red meat contribute, at least in part, to their being both zinc and iron deficient. Thus, the typical diet in developed countries usually provides insufficient zinc for healthy function, with infants, adolescents, women, and the elderly at greater risk. 7-10The prevalence of primary zinc deficiency is estimated at 25% to 49% of the world's population. 11,12

Mild zinc deficiency is fairly common and can have a significant and pervasive impact within a short time. The supply of zinc within the human body operates with a small margin of error relative to metabolic needs. The very small amount of zinc that functions as the “exchangeable zinc pool” in the human body is sufficient for only a few days without intake. Even with the relative inaccessibility of zinc deposits in bone or muscle tissue, excess zinc intake in the short-term is not usually retained (because of decreased absorption or rapid excretion). Consequently, consistent zinc intake is essential to maintain zinc metabolism within the narrow parameters between healthy function and systemic repercussions of insufficiency. Thus, a zinc-poor diet, poor assimilation, interfering agents, and an increase in physiologic demands can result in adverse effects within a short period. Nevertheless, scientific knowledge of the pathogenic mechanisms and complete characteristics of zinc deficiency remain incomplete.

A wide range of conditions can contribute to compromised zinc nutriture, insufficiency, and conditioned (secondary) deficiency. Acrodermatitis enteropathica is an inherited (autosomal recessive) disease characterized by zinc malabsorption and resulting in eczematoid skin lesions, alopecia, diarrhea, and concurrent bacterial and yeast infections. The life stages characterized by rapid growth, particularly pregnancy and lactation, childhood, and adolescence, are potentially as vulnerable as the hospitalized or institutionalized elderly person. Multiple pregnancies or shifts in growth rate, as well as infection or malignancy, can further aggravate disequilibrium in zinc metabolism. Likewise, deficient zinc intake can occur with chronic dieting, as well as poorly planned vegan, vegetarian, and semivegetarian diets. Excessive iron, calcium, or grain intake, particularly with simultaneous ingestion, may also interfere with zinc absorption, particularly because of phytic acid content of cereal grains. Impaired zinc absorption also occurs in individuals with gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, including diarrhea, pancreatic insufficiency, celiac sprue or other malabsorption syndromes, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis. Likewise, injuries or inflammatory conditions, such as burns, wound healing, dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and chronic inflammatory diseases, that increase interleukin-1 (IL-1) can rapidly deplete available zinc due to increased utilization, thus producing short-term adverse effects. Hemorrhage, hemolytic anemias (e.g., sickle cell disease, thalassemia), superficial losses, excessive diuresis, or GI tract wastage into stool can also produce rapid zinc loss sufficient to cause systemic problems. Renal insufficiency predisposes to excess zinc excretion. Macular degeneration, type 2 diabetes mellitus, malignant melanoma, congestive heart failure, and other degenerative conditions are also associated with zinc deficiency. The variety of conditions that can adversely affect zinc status, together with the delicate balance of zinc available within the human organism, render zinc nutriture critical and the consequences of deficiencies pervasive and potentially significant.

The classic clinical presentation of severe zinc deficiency is characterized by diarrhea, poor wound or ulcer healing, dermatitis, psychiatric disturbances, weight loss, intercurrent or recurrent infection, alopecia, and hypogonadism (in males). Immunodepression, muscle pain, and fatigue are also among the first and most important signs and symptoms of zinc deficiency, and immune function can be depressed in humans with even mild zinc deficiency. In general, any rapidly growing cells can be affected in initial stages. Thus, compromised health of epithelial tissues, manifesting as impaired wound healing, dermatitis, rough skin, inflammatory acne, poor nail health, increased incidence of infections, diminished immune response, and elevated intolerance to environmental toxins may also indicate impaired zinc status. Anosmia and reduced taste acuity can also suggest zinc deficiency and may manifest only through poor appetite. Photophobia, night blindness, nystagmus, or decline in visual acuity may signal diminished zinc availability affecting the eyes, resulting, at least in part, from decreased ability to mobilize retinol from the liver. Diminished fertility, particularly with impaired spermatogenesis or ovulation, menstrual irregularities, weight loss, impaired glucose tolerance, and increased lipid peroxidation are among the predictable but often-unrecognized consequences of deficiencies in physiological functions dependent on zinc nutriture. Also less obvious, but more insidious in outcomes, are longer-term changes that can result from poor zinc status, such as slow or stunted growth and delayed puberty or other sexual development, as well as irritability, anxiety, depression, difficulty with concentration and cognitive function, impaired learning, or other psychoneurological conditions. Zinc deficiency before and during pregnancy may contribute to intrauterine growth retardation and congenital fetal abnormalities. In rat studies, zinc deficiency during pregnancy results in lifelong immune abnormalities in the offspring despite adequate zinc intake from birth, which requires three generations of normal zinc nutriture to reverse. 13

Dietary Sources

Seafood and red meat (especially liver and other organ meats) are the richest dietary sources of zinc, with a single oyster providing about 8 to 15 mg zinc. Poultry and eggs provide moderate amounts of dietary sources of zinc. Whole grains, nuts, and seeds provide smaller amounts of zinc, ranging from 0.2 to about 3 mg per serving, with notable sources being sunflower and squash seeds, wheat germ, hard-wheat berries, wheat bran, buckwheat, rice bran, millet, whole-wheat flour, oatmeal, brown rice, cornmeal, and sprouted grains. However, the zinc in plant foods, particularly whole-grain cereals and soy protein, can bind to phytic acid to form an insoluble zinc-phytate complex and thus is usually less bioavailable. Breads, breakfast cereals, and nutrition bars are often fortified with substantial amounts of zinc. Other food sources of zinc include hard cheese, peanuts, soy meal, black-eyed peas, green beans, chickpeas, lima beans, spinach, green onion, and green leafy vegetables. In general, food processing removes or destroys a high proportion of zinc, as well as other trace elements. The presence of certain amino acids, such as cysteine and histidine, may enhance absorption of zinc from foods.

Nutrient Preparations Available

Numerous forms of zinc are available, as previously listed. Zinc sulfate is an inexpensive form most often used in clinical trials. Many experienced practitioners of nutritional therapeutics, however, prefer to administer organically bound or chelated forms (e.g., zinc acetate, zinc citrate, gluconate, zinc glycerate, zinc monomethionine, zinc orotate, zinc picolinate, zinc-protein hydrolysate), based on a lower incidence of gastric irritation and (presumed) superior bioavailability and utilization. In general, zinc acetate provides the most bioavailable form of zinc, across a broad range of gastric pH.

Lozenges generally contain zinc gluconate, zinc gluconate-glycinate, or zinc acetate. The efficacy of various lozenges correlates with their relative iZn dosage, the sum of all positively charged (ionized) zinc species for zinc compounds at physiologic pH of 7.4. 14 Although all others forms are available over the counter (OTC) as nutritional supplements, zinc acetate is considered a prescription item because of its use in the treatment of Wilson's disease, although zinc acetate lozenges are available as an OTC drug for upper respiratory infection (URI) treatment.

The various forms of oral zinc are salts with differing zinc content. For example, zinc sulfate contains 23% elemental zinc and zinc gluconate 14.3% elemental zinc. Thus, the amount of zinc in some typical supplemental forms is as follows: zinc amino acid chelate, 100 mg/g; zinc gluconate, 130 mg/g; zinc orotate, 170 mg/g; and zinc sulfate, 227 mg/g. A typical zinc sulfate dose of 220 mg provides approximately 55 mg of elemental zinc. However, solubility and ionizability of the various salts of can have major impact on bioavailability.

Dosage Forms Available

Capsule, injectable, intranasal gel, intranasal spray, liquid, lozenge, tablet, topical. Parenterally, zinc is usually included as a component of total parenteral nutrition (TPN).

For optimal absorption, oral zinc should usually be ingested between meals. However, if adverse GI effects occur, consumption with meals may be adequate and effective. In general, oral zinc intake should be separated from ingestion of high-fiber foods to minimize impairment of absorption, as well as high-dose calcium or iron supplements. Likewise, the antiviral activity of zinc lozenges may be impaired by certain flavorings, sweeteners, or other additives.

Source Materials for Nutrient Preparations

Zinc acetate and zinc chloride are derived from mineral salts consisting of zinc and chloride or zinc nitrate and acetic anhydride, respectively. Zinc carbonate is derived from smithsonite or zincspar. Chelates such as zinc citrate, zinc gluconate, zinc lactate, zinc orotate, zinc picolinate, and zinc selenate are derived from smithsonite or other rock processed with citric acid, gluconic acid, lactic acid, orotic acid, picolinic acid, or selenic acid, respectively. Zinc oxide is derived from zincite and zinc phosphate from hopeite.

Dosage Range

The issue of zinc dosage is unclear and eludes scientific knowledge necessary to establish a basis for widely agreed conclusions. Dietary supplements typically contain 5 to 50 mg (elemental zinc) per daily dose. Moderate intake of 15 to 50 mg daily can be used safely to provide for physiological requirements and prevent deficiency. Short-term, repeated use of zinc lozenges containing higher doses (e.g., 13-25 mg each), with up to 10 lozenges daily, is generally well tolerated for several-day periods. Therapeutic application of zinc at 50 mg, one to three times daily, may be appropriate for certain conditions, such as copper overload in Wilson's disease, under the supervision of a health care professional. The presence of zinc in some fortified foods may alter the equation for any given individual based on consumption, but is often offset by impaired bioavailability resulting from certain dietary constituents and how they affect certain forms of zinc.

Adult

  • Dietary:   The U.S. RDA for zinc is 15 mg per day for adult men and 12 mg per day for adult women, but average daily intake in developed societies is typically only 60% to 70% of that amount, with the average adult daily diet in the United Kingdom providing 11.7 mg for men and 8.7 mg for women. The official U.S. recommendations for daily intake in pregnant women is 11 mg (13 mg if ≤18 years old) and 12 mg for nursing women (14 mg if ≤18 years old).

  • Supplemental/Maintenance:   15 to 50 mg per day, preferably with copper.

In some respects, however, zinc intake beyond adequate dietary intake is sometimes considered inappropriate unless indicated, given “almost no gap for supplementation” above the RDA and the reference dose (RfD) for safe intake of zinc, although, as noted, usually a gap exists between average daily dietary intake and the recommended daily intake. 12 Few data are available on optimal zinc intakes (as assessed by function of zinc-dependent enzymes in free-living human subjects), and it is likely that optimal intakes vary considerably depending on age, lifestyle, and various states of health and disease.

Pharmacological/Therapeutic: 50 to 350 mg (elemental zinc) per day.

Oral doses as high as 220 mg zinc sulfate three times daily have been used in trials of zinc for the prevention of crisis in sickle cell anemia, and twice daily for 12 weeks to correct zinc deficiency in cirrhotic patients with symptoms of deficiency (e.g., blunted taste/smell). 15,16In a trial involving patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, 135 mg/day was administered for 15 days (along with 2 mg copper daily) to correct zinc deficiency. 17

  • Toxic:   Toxicity can occur at levels as low as 60 mg/day (with prolonged intake) but is more frequently associated with doses higher than 300 mg/day. Prolonged intake at doses higher than 150 mg/day may be associated with adverse effects. The official U.S. tolerable upper limit (UL) for adults (≥19 years) is 40 mg, including pregnant or nursing women, although it is 34 mg/day if such women are 18 years old or younger. 18 This amount includes dietary intake and thus may vary considerably with high consumption of fortified foods or foods naturally rich in zinc.

Pediatric (<18 Years)

Dietary: Zinc concentrations in breast milk are relatively low, but such zinc is highly absorbable. Official U.S. recommendations for daily intake follow 18 :

  • Infants, birth to 6 months: 2 mg/day
  • Infants, 7 to 12 months: 3 mg/day
  • Children, 1 to 3 years: 3 mg/day
  • Children, 4 to 8 years: 5 mg/day
  • Children, 9 to 13 years: 8 mg/day
  • Adolescents, 14 to 18 years: 9 mg/day for females; 11 mg/day for males

Clinical experience with adolescents suggests that much larger amounts may be required during growth spurts (up to 40 mg/day).

  • Supplemental/Maintenance:   Usually not recommended for children under 12 years of age with healthy, balanced diet, without excessive dietary phytates.

  • Pharmacological/Therapeutic:   5 to 40 mg per day, for specified periods.

Trials investigating zinc supplementation in infants born small for gestational age (SGA) typically use 5 mg zinc sulfate daily, often combined with other nutrients. 19 Zinc acetate (10 mg twice daily for 5 days) has been used successfully in infants and young children with severe acute lower respiratory infection. 20 Several prominent trials have found efficacy of low-dose oral zinc in acute and persistent diarrhea in children under 5 years of age in developing countries.

  • Toxic:   150 mg/day on a chronic basis, or acutely with doses greater than 200 mg daily. However, the toxic dose of zinc depends primarily on dose and duration, and also varies with status and absorption, weight, and concomitant intake. Single intravenous (IV) doses of 1 to 2 mg zinc/kg body weight have been given to adult leukemia patients without toxic manifestations. Consensus as to toxic dose in clinical applications has not been established, and plasma levels sufficient to produce symptoms of toxic manifestations are not known.

Tolerable upper intake levels (UL) for zinc follow 18 :

  • Infants, 0 to 6 months: 4 mg/day
  • Infants, 7 to 12 months: 5 mg/day
  • Children, 1 to 3 years: 7 mg/day
  • Children, 4 to 8 years: 12 mg/day
  • Children, 9 to 13 years: 23 mg/day
  • Adolescents, 14 to 18 years: 34 mg/day

Laboratory Values

Overview

Clinicians and researchers broadly agree that clinical presentation and response to zinc administration provide the most accurate means of assessing zinc status and confirming deficiency status. Thereafter, retesting (e.g., plasma zinc) and reevaluation of symptoms after 4 to 6 months of treatment are usually effective for determining if dosages need adjustment. In a review, Hambridge 21 (2003) concluded that there is a “compelling demand for improved zinc biomarkers” based on numerous characteristics peculiar to the physiology of zinc in the human organism. “More specific markers of zinc status are needed, and their relationships to zinc-dependent cellular functions and the distribution and allocation of zinc to the different organ systems need to be clarified.” Some physicians experienced in nutritional therapeutics consider measuring the leukocyte zinc level as the best laboratory method for determining zinc status. 22 Most clinicians and researchers do not consider hair a reliable form of analysis for measuring tissue levels of zinc. 23 Moreover, some clinicians observe that urine and hair tissue levels are often elevated in patients with zinc deficiency because of dysfunction in zinc metabolism and high rates of excretion.

Erythrocyte Zinc

Most of the zinc measured as erythrocyte zinc is incorporated in carbonic anhydrase. Although some studies report detection of depletion through low levels, erythrocyte zinc has been generally regarded as not readily depleted and therefore not accurately indicative of zinc status. 24

Hair Zinc

Some clinicians have suggested that analysis of hair zinc concentrations might reveal associations between low hair zinc levels and zinc depletion status. However, numerous factors, such as age, growth rate, and dietary intake of phytates and meat, can confound analysis and decrease this test's ability to consistently determine impaired zinc status or inadequate intake. 23,25-29Antidandruff shampoos often incorporate zinc as well, which can greatly elevate hair zinc levels.

Plasma Zinc

The range for normal plasma levels for zinc is 58 to 106 µg/dL. In blood plasma, zinc is bound to albumin (80%) and to α2-macroglobulin (20%). Plasma zinc levels appear to follow a circadian rhythm, with the highest values occurring late morning, at approximately 10AM. Plasma zinc can be normal even when plasma albumin is low, because albumin normally contains many unsaturated binding sites.

Plasma zinc and serum zinc are often used in clinical and research settings but are physiologically insensitive and of limited diagnostic value. Hambridge 21 observed: “Plasma zinc is currently the most widely used and accepted biomarker of zinc status despite poor sensitivity and imperfect specificity…. One reason that plasma zinc does not accurately reflect the volatile relationship between zinc intake and absorption is that homeostatic control of plasma zinc concentrations can occur while moderate changes are occurring in the zinc content of one or more of the pools of zinc that exchange rapidly with zinc in plasma.” Furthermore, the decline that occurs as a recognized component of the acute-phase response in infections represents at least one important limitation affecting the specificity of plasma zinc as an index of zinc status. 30,31Severe acute zinc deficiency states, such as untreated acrodermatitis enteropathica, may reveal profoundly depressed plasma zinc levels. However, mild zinc deficiencies that can adversely affect physiological function may appear as plasma zinc concentrations within the normal range, as with growth-limiting zinc deficiency states in young children. 26 Various studies have conflicting findings and mixed conclusions regarding an association between zinc intake and plasma zinc. Nevertheless, concentrations less than 70 µg zinc/dL plasma can serve as a useful predictor of growth response to zinc supplementation, and beneficial effects of zinc administration in the prevention and management of diarrhea can be predicted using lower cutoff values. Plasma levels less than 70 µg/dL might constitute a better definition of deficiency state.

Red Cell Membrane Zinc

Metallothionein levels in erythrocytes respond to administration of zinc as well as restricted dietary intake. 32 Thus, RBC membrane zinc may be a sensitive indicator of zinc depletion, but its practical implementation on a widespread basis is considered unlikely given the complexity of sample preparation. A parallel situation appears with monocyte, neutrophil, or platelet zinc. 33-36

Serum Zinc

Serum zinc concentration less than 33 µg/dL indicates zinc deficiency. Serum levels 33 to 50 µg/dL indicate marginal zinc status. The normal range for serum zinc is 67 to 124 µg/dL, although this varies between clinical laboratories.

Serum zinc is considered an insensitive marker of physiological zinc status, for the same reasons previously stated in relationship to plasma zinc.

White Blood Cell Zinc

The levels of zinc in leukocytes or lymphocytes appears to reflect zinc status accurately, particularly in relation to key zinc-related functions such as immune function, life stage, and growth processes. For example, leukocyte (WBC) zinc is reflective of fetal growth and associated with maternal muscle zinc concentration. Likewise, activity of lymphocyte ecto-5′-nucleotidase is a sensitive indicator of zinc status. 12,37-41

Assessment of gene expression of zinc-dependent genes in lymphocytes (specifically cellular zinc transporter hZip1) offers promise as a biomarker of expression of the cellular zinc response to zinc intake and bioassay for zinc status. 42

Zinc Tally

In this quick and simple screening method for evaluating zinc status, the absence of the typical metallic taste of zinc, after placing 2 teaspoons of a 0.1% solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate in the patient's mouth and holding it there for 10 seconds, suggests deficiency. An immediate taste perception indicates that zinc status may be adequate; conversely, lack of zinc taste suggests deficiency.

Zinc Tolerance Test

In this test an oral load of 50 mg elemental zinc is administered, after a baseline plasma zinc measurement, and plasma zinc is remeasured 120 minutes later. A twofold to threefold increase in plasma zinc indicates zinc deficiency. Zinc supplements need to be avoided for 24 hours before sampling of plasma.

CD4+/CD8+ T-Lymphocyte Ratio and Thymulin Activity

The CD4+/CD8+ T-lymphocyte ratio and thymulin activity have been advanced as potential immunological tests for zinc deficiency, but evidence confirming their accuracy is lacking.

Other findings possibly consistent with zinc insufficiency, but also resulting from other causes, include the following 43 :

  • Elevated anserine and carnosine peptides, with low levels of essential amino acids, in urine or plasma amino acid analysis.
  • Elevated phosphoserine and phosphoethanolamine in urine amino acid analysis.
  • Elevated lactic acid in plasma or urine (lactic acid dehydrogenase also is zinc dependent).
  • Elevated or normal linolenic acid, but low gamma-linolenic acid, consistent with weak delta-6-desaturase activity (zinc dependent).

safety profile

Overview

Zinc dosage beyond the RDA is not established, and the perpetually marginal nature of zinc nutriture leaves a relatively small dosage range and tight time frame for safe and effective use of zinc between suboptimal and potentially toxic intake levels, particularly with extended use outside a balanced nutrient regimen. The affinity of zinc for certain tissues appears to result in a pattern of benefit and toxicity converging (e.g., immune system, possibly prostate). The dose typically used for short-term immune stimulation as a lozenge (13-25 mg each) would be excessive for continued use with oral intake and could impair immune function (at >150-300 mg/day). Likewise, 25 to 30 mg daily has been used to improve pregnancy outcomes in low-income pregnant women and pregnant teenagers, but a significantly higher dose could have potentially adverse effects during pregnancy, especially on embryogenesis.

Zinc is perhaps the least toxic mineral nutrient at usual doses but can be strikingly toxic at very high doses associated with industrial exposure. Notably, major authorities on zinc physiology, requirements, and safety acknowledge the limited scope of scientific knowledge as to its physiological functions, the multiple variables affecting bioavailability, dynamic relationships between zinc and other minerals, parameters governing insufficiency and toxicity, and methods of assessing functional zinc levels.

Nutrient Adverse Effects

General Adverse Effects

Zinc is generally considered relatively nontoxic at low to moderate levels typical of supplemental use: less than 50 mg elemental per day. Given the narrow gap between potentially insufficient and excessive levels, both deficiency and toxicity can vary significantly among individuals based on tissue and circulating levels, historic intake, zinc pool status, recent or active infection, blood loss or other depletion factors, dietary interactions, and other variables. Gastrointestinal upset and nausea are quite common when zinc supplements, especially zinc sulfate, are taken on an empty stomach. More importantly, zinc administration, especially lacking in compensatory copper support, can produce adverse effects rapidly (as with deficiency), which grow in intensity based on dose and duration and influenced by other variables. The primary toxic effects of zinc, typically associated with prolonged intake at levels greater than 150 mg daily, include copper deficiency anemia, depressed immune function, and reduced high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels.

Topical zinc preparations are generally considered safe and unlikely to produce any adverse effects. However, anosmia has been reported with zinc nasal spray and in rare cases has been reported to be severe or permanent. 44

The primary effects of zinc toxicity can occur with doses higher than 150 mg/day on a chronic basis or acutely with doses greater than 200 mg daily. They include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, metallic taste in the mouth, dizziness, drowsiness, incoordination, and lethargy. Gastric erosion and hematuria with chronic high-dose use have been reported but not confirmed. Ingestion of 10 to 30 g of zinc sulfate can be lethal in adults. However, acute zinc toxicity is extremely rare because ingestion of the amounts required for toxicity symptoms (2 g/kg) will usually provoke vomiting before toxic dose levels are attained. Impairment of copper absorption can begin at daily doses as low as 50 mg elemental zinc, with copper depletion accruing over time and manifesting as low serum copper and ceruloplasmin levels, microcytic anemia, and neutropenia; iron deficiency is also possible. Immune function can become impaired, HDL cholesterol levels decrease, and total cholesterol levels increase with daily doses over 300 mg/day for extended periods, but possibly as low as 150 mg/day, perhaps as a result of induced copper deficiency. 45-49Subsequently, zinc-induced copper deficiency has been associated with cases of reversible acquired sideroblastic anemia, cardiac arrhythmias, and bone marrow depression. Such reports have involved chronic intake of 450 to 1600 mg daily, and many such cases are properly characterized as zinc abuse, with ingestion of coins being the source of zinc in one individual. 50-55Inhalation of zinc oxide in certain industrial settings and the use of galvanized pipes for drinking water are also known causes of excess zinc exposure.

Short-term frequent use of zinc lozenges can occasionally produce digestive upset, local oral irritation, and unpleasant taste; typically reversible with cessation. 49,56

Adverse Effects Among Specific Populations

One study from India suggests that the concomitant use of zinc and oral antibiotics in the acute management of pneumonia of infants or children may delay recovery during the hot season, particularly in the absence of zinc deficiency. 57

Two preliminary papers by Bush et al. 58,59discussed the possibility of zinc aggravating amyloid formation in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. However, subsequent research articles and reviews have concluded that zinc does not cause or exacerbate Alzheimer's disease symptoms, and may enhance mental function by improving platelet membrane microviscosity. 60,61

Genotoxicity

“Zinc is apparently neither a mutagen nor a carcinogen.” 12,62However, in one study analyzing data from a larger trial, researchers reported a slight increase in the relative risk of prostate cancer among men who used zinc supplements for more than 10 years, particularly at doses greater than 100 mg elemental zinc daily. 63

Pregnancy and Nursing

Maternal nutritional zinc deficit “can have permanent negative effects on the growth of offspring,” and zinc administration at typical dose levels may be beneficial during pregnancy. However, excess zinc intake “during embryogenesis can be teratogenic or lethal,” and premature birth and stillbirth have been reported when women consumed 100 mg three times daily during the third trimester. 12,62,64The use of supplemental zinc by nursing mothers over an extended period, without compensatory copper support, could contribute to zinc-induced copper deficiency in breastfed infants. Nevertheless, no reports or studies in the scientific literature show any adverse effects on fetal development from supplemental zinc, at typical doses, in well-nourished mothers or in infants who are breastfed.

Contraindications

No contraindications have been established for zinc.

Precautions and Warnings

Extended use of zinc without copper carries a warning. The recommended ratio of zinc to copper is 15:1 to 20:1. This ratio is higher in elderly persons, who, in the United States, tend to have high copper levels and low zinc levels because of a history of chronic ingestion of water carried through copper pipes.

interactions review

Strategic Considerations

Three simple and consistent themes are recurrent among the various interactions between zinc and pharmacological agents. First, as a mineral/metal, zinc tends to chelate with many substances when ingested simultaneously or in temporal proximity. This potential problem is easily avoided through patient education and clinical management; individuals should separate intake, preferably taking zinc at least 2 hours before or 4 hours after such medications. Second, in all situations except the treatment of individuals with Wilson's disease, the default prudent measure with any long-term application of zinc is to avoid zinc-induced copper deficiency by periodically monitoring serum copper levels and coadministering low-dose copper (1-3 mg/day). Third, within the human organism, zinc is volatile with an ever-shifting distribution between pools. Thus, establishing zinc deficiency or monitoring the impact of any agent on functional zinc status is difficult and unreliable. Consequently, at usual dosage levels and with attentiveness to clinical manifestations of zinc deficiency (or excess), coadministration of zinc within a therapeutic strategy carries minimal risk of adverse interactions, other than copper depletion and the predictable chelation phenomena common to most minerals when ingested with other substances.

Numerous pharmaceutical agents are associated with adverse effects, both subtle and overt, of zinc depletion. Consequently, numerous clinical situations occur in which coadministration of zinc may improve zinc nutriture, related physiological functions, and clinical manifestations, even when prior conventional laboratory assessment had revealed no measurable signs of depletion, insufficiency, or deficiency. These recurrent patterns indicate two probable phenomena: zinc can provide benefit in the absence of depletion, detected or not, and conventional laboratory methods currently applied for assessing zinc status are insensitive and inadequate to clinical demands. Our limited knowledge of the many functions of zinc is repeatedly revealed in the sparsity and limited depth of both the observations of zinc-related benefits and interactions and the mechanisms involved.

Many widely used pharmaceutical agents contribute to zinc depletion, usually through binding and increased urinary zinc excretion. Thus, coadministration of zinc may reduce depletion effects or prevent other adverse effects associated with a wide range of medications used to treat hypertension, inflammation, and other conditions. Particularly with chronic use, thiazide diuretics increase urinary zinc excretion, as do loop diuretics, although probably to a lesser degree. Although patients treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (especially captopril) at clearly are risk for zinc depletion, the effects of potassium-sparing diuretics on zinc are diverse and complicated. Furthermore, amiloride is often combined with a thiazide diuretic to reduce mineral loss, but amiloride may cause zinc accumulation by reducing urinary excretion. In contrast, triamterene can increase urinary zinc excretion in the short-term and cause depletion with extended use. In patients treated with antacids and gastric acid–suppressive medications, long-term drug therapy can impair zinc absorption and reduce availability by interfering with the normal acid environment of the stomach; although cimetidine appears to be an exception among H2blockers. With these drugs, administration of zinc can prevent or reverse depletion and enhance healing of gastric tissue damaged by ulceration. When coadministered with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), zinc may reduce risk of adverse effects on zinc status while providing protective effects and contributing to enhanced therapeutic outcomes.

Oral corticosteroids and valproic acid, alone or in combination with other anticonvulsant agents, represent examples of medications that can deplete zinc, but for which evidence of benefit from concomitant zinc is limited or lacking.

Evidence of variable strength suggests a probable synergy or other benefit from concomitant zinc administration with a wide range of conventional interventions, including mixed amphetamines, androgens, clobetasol (and potentially other topical corticosteroids), metronidazole (in treating trichomoniasis), and chlorhexidine-zinc oral rinse. In the treatment of individuals with Wilson's disease, concomitant zinc may enhance the therapeutic activity of penicillamine in reducing copper levels, although intake needs to be separated. Zinc therapy can be applied to reduce adverse effects to taste sensation in patients receiving radiation therapy, particularly to the head and neck.

In several areas the coadministration of zinc with conventional therapies appears to produce mixed effects, depending on patient characteristics, with full implications as yet unclear. For example, in women of reproductive age, oral contraceptives may decrease serum levels of zinc; conversely, osteoporotic postmenopausal women taking conjugated estrogens and medroxyprogesterone may exhibit reductions in previously elevated urinary zinc excretion. Zidovudine (AZT) and related antiretroviral agents present another complicated situation where divergent responses are common. In a patient population often characterized by zinc insufficiency, zinc coadministration may reduce drug-related adverse effects, add protective benefits (particularly in patients with diarrhea and opportunistic infections), provide no significant benefit, or even potentially elevate the risk of complications.

Numerous clinical situations allow for possible synergy, particularly in individuals or populations at greater risk for compromised zinc or broader nutritional status. The areas of antibiotic therapy, oral or topical, and antidepressant medications, particularly tricyclic and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants, offer significant potential for continued research into integrative therapeutic applications.

In many situations, zinc (as well as most other minerals) tends to bind with other substances and thereby decrease bioavailability and therapeutic action or nutritive value of both agents. Separation of intake remediates this problem. Antibiotics from the tetracycline class (other than doxycycline) or fluoroquinolone class (particularly ciprofloxacin) and warfarin or related oral vitamin K antagonist anticoagulants stand as primary examples of situations commonly accepted as involving a significant risk of pharmacokinetic interference.

Zinc may play a central role in the intimate relationships between the immune system and the mental-emotional states traditionally ascribed to the central nervous system (CNS). The body of scientific knowledge emerging within the field of psychoneuroimmunology may render obsolete conventional parsing of academic disciplines, which often are inadequate in conveying the totality of complex physiological functioning inherent in clinical medicine. A more comprehensive model can provide a forum for further research into the broader functions of zinc that transcend narrow categorization and defy reductionist analysis.

nutrient-drug interactions
Amphetamines and Related Stimulant Medications
Androgens
Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Agents (Systemic)
Antibiotics, Topical
Antidepressants, Including Tricyclic Antidepressants and Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) Antidepressants
Calcium-Based Antacids
Captopril, Enalapril, and Related Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors
Chlorhexidine
Ciprofloxacin and Related Fluoroquinolone (4-Quinolone) Antibiotics
Clobetasol and Related Topical Corticosteroids
Cisplatin
Corticosteroids, Oral, Including Prednisone
Oral Contraceptives: Monophasic, Biphasic, and Triphasic Estrogen Preparations (Synthetic Estrogen and Progesterone Analogs)
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), Estrogens
Progestin/Progestogen-Only Oral Contraceptives, Implants, and Postcoital Contraceptives
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Histamine (H 2 ) Receptor Antagonists and Related Antacids and Gastric Acid–Suppressive Medications
Loop Diuretics
Metronidazole, Vaginal
Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
Penicillamine
Potassium-Sparing Diuretics
Radiotherapy
Tetracycline Antibiotics
Thiazide Diuretics
Valproic Acid and Related Anticonvulsant Medications (AEDs)
Warfarin and Related Oral Vitamin K Antagonist Anticoagulants
Zidovudine (AZT) and Related Nucleoside or Nonnucleoside (Analog) Reverse-Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIS or NNRTIS) Antiretroviral Agents
theoretical, speculative, and preliminary interactions research, including overstated interactions claims
Acetylsalicylic Acid (Aspirin) and Related Anti-Inflammatory Analgesic Medications
Bile Acid Sequestrants
Bisphosphonates
Clofibrate and Related Fibrates
Cyclosporine
Dopamine Receptor Antagonists
EDTA

EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid).

In vitro experiments suggest that concomitant use with zinc might increase the cytotoxicity of cisplatin in the presence of EDTA, compared with cisplatin alone. 198

Ethambutol
Folic Acid
Hydralazine
Interferon Alfa (Interferon Alpha)
Nystatin
nutrient-nutrient interactions
Antioxidant Nutrients
Calcium and Calcium-Based Antacids
Copper
SMALLCAPS L END_SMALLCAPS -Cysteine
Folic Acid
Glutamine and Probiotic Bacterial Flora
SMALLCAPS L END_SMALLCAPS -Histidine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
N -Acetylcysteine (NAC)
Vitamin B 2 (Riboflavin)
herb-nutrient interactions
Ashwagandha
Bloodroot
Evening Primrose Oil
Citations and Reference Literature
  • 1.Henderson LM, Brewer GJ, Dressman JB et al. Effect of intragastric pH on the absorption of oral zinc acetate and zinc oxide in young healthy volunteers. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1995;19:393-397.View Abstract
  • 2.Nowak G, Legutko B, Szewczyk B et al. Zinc treatment induces cortical brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene expression. Eur J Pharmacol 2004;492:57-59.View Abstract
  • 3.Szewczyk B, Sowa M, Czupryn A et al. Increase in synaptic hippocampal zinc concentration following chronic but not acute zinc treatment in rats. Brain Res 2006;1090:69-75.View Abstract
  • 4.Nowak G, Szewczyk B, Pilc A. Zinc and depression: an update. Pharmacol Rep 2005;57:713-718.View Abstract
  • 5.Krotkiewski M, Gudmundsson M, Backstrom P, Mandroukas K. Zinc and muscle strength and endurance. Acta Physiol Scand 1982;116:309-311.View Abstract
  • 6.Burt WH. Characteristic Materia Medica. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Boericke and Tafel; 1873.
  • 7.Sandstead HH. Zinc nutrition in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr 1973;26:1251-1260.View Abstract
  • 8.Prasad AS. Zinc deficiency in women, infants and children. J Am Coll Nutr 1996;15:113-120.View Abstract
  • 9.Stang J, Story MT, Harnack L, Neumark-Sztainer D. Relationships between vitamin and mineral supplement use, dietary intake, and dietary adequacy among adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc 2000;100:905-910.
  • 10.Ervin RB, Kennedy-Stephenson J. Mineral intakes of elderly adult supplement and non-supplement users in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Nutr 2002;132:3422-3427.View Abstract
  • 11.Brown K, Wuehler S, Peerson J. The importance of zinc in human nutrition and estimation of the global prevalence of zinc deficiency. Food Nutr Bull 2001;22:113-125.
  • 12.Maret W, Sandstead HH. Zinc requirements and the risks and benefits of zinc supplementation. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2006;20:3-18.View Abstract
  • 13.Beach RS, Gershwin ME, Hurley LS. Persistent immunological consequences of gestation zinc deprivation. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;38:579-590.View Abstract
  • 14.Eby GA. Zinc lozenges: cold cure or candy? Solution chemistry determinations. Biosci Rep 2004;24:23-39.View Abstract
  • 15.Gupta VL, Chaubey BS. Efficacy of zinc therapy in prevention of crisis in sickle cell anemia: a double blind, randomized controlled clinical trial. J Assoc Physicians India 1995;43:467-469.View Abstract
  • 16.Marchesini G, Fabbri A, Bianchi G et al. Zinc supplementation and amino acid–nitrogen metabolism in patients with advanced cirrhosis. Hepatology 1996;23:1084-1092.View Abstract
  • 17.Werbach MR. Nutritional strategies for treating chronic fatigue syndrome. Altern Med Rev 2000;5:93-108.View Abstract
  • 18.Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001:290-293.
  • 19.Sazawal S, Black RE, Menon VP et al. Zinc supplementation in infants born small for gestational age reduces mortality: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 2001;108:1280-1286.View Abstract
  • 20.Mahalanabis D, Lahiri M, Paul D et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of the efficacy of treatment with zinc or vitamin A in infants and young children with severe acute lower respiratory infection. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:430-436.View Abstract
  • 21.Hambidge M. Biomarkers of trace mineral intake and status. J Nutr 2003;133 Suppl 3:948S-955S.View Abstract
  • 22.Murray MT. Encyclopedia of Nutritional Supplements: the Essential Guide for Improving Your Health Naturally. Roseville, Calif: Prima; 1996.
  • 23.Hambidge KM. Hair analyses: worthless for vitamins, limited for minerals. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;36:943-949.View Abstract
  • 24.Thomas EA, Bailey LB, Kauwell GA et al. Erythrocyte metallothionein response to dietary zinc in humans. J Nutr 1992;122:2408-2414.View Abstract
  • 25.Hambidge KM, Hambidge C, Jacobs M, Baum JD. Low levels of zinc in hair, anorexia, poor growth, and hypogeusia in children. Pediatr Res 1972;6:868-874.View Abstract
  • 26.Walravens PA, Krebs NF, Hambidge KM. Linear growth of low income preschool children receiving a zinc supplement. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;38:195-201.View Abstract
  • 27.Smit Vanderkooy PD, Gibson RS. Food consumption patterns of Canadian preschool children in relation to zinc and growth status. Am J Clin Nutr 1987;45:609-616.View Abstract
  • 28.Gibson RS, Vanderkooy PD, MacDonald AC et al. A growth-limiting, mild zinc-deficiency syndrome in some southern Ontario boys with low height percentiles. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:1266-1273.View Abstract
  • 29.Ferguson EL, Gibson RS, Opare-Obisaw C et al. The zinc nutriture of preschool children living in two African countries. J Nutr 1993;123:1487-1496.View Abstract
  • 30.English JL, Hambidge KM. Plasma and serum zinc concentrations: effect of time between collection and separation. Clin Chim Acta 1988;175:211-215.
  • 31.Brown KH. Effect of infections on plasma zinc concentration and implications for zinc status assessment in low-income countries. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:425S-429S.View Abstract
  • 32.Grider A, Bailey LB, Cousins RJ. Erythrocyte metallothionein as an index of zinc status in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990;87:1259-1262.View Abstract
  • 33.Prasad AS, Cossack ZT. Neutrophil zinc: an indicator of zinc status in man. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 1982;95:165-176.View Abstract
  • 34.Prasad AS. Laboratory diagnosis of zinc deficiency. J Am Coll Nutr 1985;4:591-598.View Abstract
  • 35.Milne DB, Ralston NV, Wallwork JC. Zinc content of blood cellular components and lymph node and spleen lymphocytes in severely zinc-deficient rats. J Nutr 1985;115:1073-1078.View Abstract
  • 36.Hambidge M, Krebs N. Assessment of zinc status in man. Indian J Pediatr 1995;62:169-180.View Abstract
  • 37.Meadows NJ, Ruse W, Smith MF et al. Zinc and small babies. Lancet 1981;2:1135-1137.View Abstract
  • 38.Meftah S, Prasad AS, Lee DY, Brewer GJ. Ecto 5′ nucleotidase (5′NT) as a sensitive indicator of human zinc deficiency. J Lab Clin Med 1991;118:309-316.View Abstract
  • 39.Prasad AS, Fitzgerald JT, Hess JW et al. Zinc deficiency in elderly patients. Nutrition 1993;9:218-224.View Abstract
  • 40.Bales CW, DiSilvestro RA, Currie KL et al. Marginal zinc deficiency in older adults: responsiveness of zinc status indicators. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:455-462.View Abstract
  • 41.Beck FW, Kaplan J, Fine N et al. Decreased expression of CD73 (ecto-5′-nucleotidase) in the CD8+ subset is associated with zinc deficiency in human patients. J Lab Clin Med 1997;130:147-156.View Abstract
  • 42.Andree KB, Kim J, Kirschke CP et al. Investigation of lymphocyte gene expression for use as biomarkers for zinc status in humans. J Nutr 2004;134:1716-1723.View Abstract
  • 43.Pangborn J. What is the best way to assess zinc status? Nutrition and Metabolic Newsletter. 1 vol. Genova Diagnostics; 1999.
  • 44.Jafek BW, Linschoten MR, Murrow BW. Anosmia after intranasal zinc gluconate use. Am J Rhinol 2004;18:137-141.View Abstract
  • 45.Chandra RK. Excessive intake of zinc impairs immune responses. JAMA 1984;252:1443-1446.View Abstract
  • 46.Patterson WP, Winkelmann M, Perry MC. Zinc-induced copper deficiency: megamineral sideroblastic anemia. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:385-386.View Abstract
  • 47.Reiser S, Powell A, Yang CY, Canary JJ. Effect of copper intake on blood cholesterol and its lipoprotein distribution in men. Nutr Rep Int 1987;36:641-649.
  • 48.Sandstead HH. Requirements and toxicity of essential trace elements, illustrated by zinc and copper. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61:621S-624S.View Abstract
  • 49.Shannon M. Alternative medicines toxicology: a review of selected agents. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999;37:709-713.View Abstract
  • 50.Simon SR, Branda RF, Tindle BF, Burns SL. Copper deficiency and sideroblastic anemia associated with zinc ingestion. Am J Hematol 1988;28:181-183.View Abstract
  • 51.Forman WB, Sheehan D, Cappelli S, Coffman B. Zinc abuse—an unsuspected cause of sideroblastic anemia. West J Med 1990;152:190-192.View Abstract
  • 52.Broun ER, Greist A, Tricot G, Hoffman R. Excessive zinc ingestion: a reversible cause of sideroblastic anemia and bone marrow depression. JAMA 1990;264:1441-1443.View Abstract
  • 53.Ramadurai J, Shapiro C, Kozloff M, Telfer M. Zinc abuse and sideroblastic anemia. Am J Hematol 1993;42:227-228.View Abstract
  • 54.Fiske DN, McCoy HE 3rd, Kitchens CS. Zinc-induced sideroblastic anemia: report of a case, review of the literature, and description of the hematologic syndrome. Am J Hematol 1994;46:147-150.View Abstract
  • 55.Kumar A, Jazieh AR. Case report of sideroblastic anemia caused by ingestion of coins. Am J Hematol 2001;66:126-129.View Abstract
  • 56.Macknin ML, Piedmonte M, Calendine C et al. Zinc gluconate lozenges for treating the common cold in children: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;279:1962-1967.View Abstract
  • 57.Bose A, Coles CL, Gunavathi et al. Efficacy of zinc in the treatment of severe pneumonia in hospitalized children <2 y old. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:1089-1096; quiz 1207.View Abstract
  • 58.Bush AI, Pettingell WH Jr, de Paradis M et al. The amyloid beta-protein precursor and its mammalian homologues: evidence for a zinc-modulated heparin-binding superfamily. J Biol Chem 1994;269:26618-26621.View Abstract
  • 59.Bush AI, Pettingell WH, Multhaup G et al. Rapid induction of Alzheimer A beta amyloid formation by zinc. Science 1994;265:1464-1467.View Abstract
  • 60.Potocnik FC, van Rensburg SJ, Park C et al. Zinc and platelet membrane microviscosity in Alzheimer’s disease: the in vivo effect of zinc on platelet membranes and cognition. S Afr Med J 1997;87:1116-1119.
  • 61.Prasad AS. Zinc in human health: an update. J Trace Elem Exp Med 1998;11:63-87.
  • 62.World Health Organization. E. C. EHC. Zinc. Geneva: WHO; 2001:360.
  • 63.Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Wu K et al. Zinc supplement use and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003;95:1004-1007.View Abstract
  • 64.Zinc for the common cold. Med Lett Drugs Ther 1997;39:9-10.
  • 65.Vallee BL, Falchuk KH. The biochemical basis of zinc physiology. Physiol Rev 1993;73:79-118.View Abstract
  • 66.Nowak G. Alterations in zinc homeostasis in depression and antidepressant therapy. Pol J Pharmacol 1998;50:1-4.View Abstract
  • 67.Toren P, Eldar S, Sela BA et al. Zinc deficiency in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1996;40:1308-1310.View Abstract
  • 68.Kirby K, Floriani V, Bernstein H. Diagnosis and management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Curr Opin Pediatr 2001;13:190-199.View Abstract
  • 69.Bekaroglu M, Aslan Y, Gedik Y et al. Relationships between serum free fatty acids and zinc, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1996;37:225-227.
  • 70.Bilici M, Yildirim F, Kandil S et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of zinc sulfate in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004;28:181-190.View Abstract
  • 71.Akhondzadeh S, Mohammadi MR, Khademi M. Zinc sulfate as an adjunct to methylphenidate for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children: a double blind and randomized trial [ISRCTN64132371]. BMC Psychiatry 2004;4:9.
  • 72.Ott ES, Shay NF. Zinc deficiency reduces leptin gene expression and leptin secretion in rat adipocytes. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2001;226:841-846.View Abstract
  • 73.Hartoma TR, Nahoul K, Netter A. Zinc, plasma androgens and male sterility. Lancet 1977;2:1125-1126.View Abstract
  • 74.Fang VS, Furuhashi N. Partial alleviation of the antitesticular effect of pipecolinomethylhydroxyindane by zinc in rats. J Endocrinol 1978;79:151-152.View Abstract
  • 75.Netter A, Hartoma R, Nahoul K. Effect of zinc administration on plasma testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and sperm count. Arch Androl 1981;7:69-73.View Abstract
  • 76.Castro-Magana M, Collipp PJ, Chen SY et al. Zinc nutritional status, androgens, and growth retardation. Am J Dis Child 1981;135:322-325.View Abstract
  • 77.Takihara H, Cosentino MJ, Cockett AT. Effect of low-dose androgen and zinc sulfate on sperm motility and seminal zinc levels in infertile men. Urology 1983;22:160-164.View Abstract
  • 78.Bhutta ZA, Black RE, Brown KH et al. Prevention of diarrhea and pneumonia by zinc supplementation in children in developing countries: pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. Zinc Investigators’ Collaborative Group. J Pediatr 1999;135:689-697.View Abstract
  • 79.Brooks WA, Yunus M, Santosham M et al. Zinc for severe pneumonia in very young children: double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004;363:1683-1688.View Abstract
  • 80.Bhandari N, Bahl R, Taneja S et al. Effect of routine zinc supplementation on pneumonia in children aged 6 months to 3 years: randomised controlled trial in an urban slum. BMJ 2002;324:1358.View Abstract
  • 81.Mahalanabis D, Chowdhury A, Jana S et al. Zinc supplementation as adjunct therapy in children with measles accompanied by pneumonia: a double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:604-607.View Abstract
  • 82.Dreno B, Vandermeeren MA, Rigou V. [Zinc and the skin]. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1988;115:741-746.View Abstract
  • 83.Dreno B, Moyse D, Alirezai M et al. Multicenter randomized comparative double-blind controlled clinical trial of the safety and efficacy of zinc gluconate versus minocycline hydrochloride in the treatment of inflammatory acne vulgaris. Dermatology 2001;203:135-140.View Abstract
  • 84.Dreno B, Amblard P, Agache P et al. Low doses of zinc gluconate for inflammatory acne. Acta Derm Venereol 1989;69:541-543.View Abstract
  • 85.Dreno B, Trossaert M, Boiteau HL, Litoux P. Zinc salts effects on granulocyte zinc concentration and chemotaxis in acne patients. Acta Derm Venereol 1992;72:250-252.View Abstract
  • 86.Habbema L, Koopmans B, Menke HE et al. A 4% erythromycin and zinc combination (Zineryt) versus 2% erythromycin (Eryderm) in acne vulgaris: a randomized, double-blind comparative study. Br J Dermatol 1989;121:497-502.View Abstract
  • 87.Schachner L, Eaglstein W, Kittles C, Mertz P. Topical erythromycin and zinc therapy for acne. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:253-260.View Abstract
  • 88.Dreno B, Foulc P, Reynaud A et al. Effect of zinc gluconate on Propionibacterium acnes resistance to erythromycin in patients with inflammatory acne: in vitro and in vivo study. Eur J Dermatol 2005;15:152-155.View Abstract
  • 89.McLoughlin IJ, Hodge JS. Zinc in depressive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;82:451-453.View Abstract
  • 90.Maes M, D’Haese PC, Scharpe S et al. Hypozincemia in depression. J Affect Disord 1994;31:135-140.
  • 91.Siwek MS, Wrobel A, Dudek D et al. [The role of zinc in the pathogenesis and treatment of affective disorders]. Psychiatr Pol 2005;39:899-909.View Abstract
  • 92.Nowak G, Siwek M, Dudek D et al. Effect of zinc supplementation on antidepressant therapy in unipolar depression: a preliminary placebo-controlled study. Pol J Pharmacol 2003;55:1143-1147.View Abstract
  • 93.Szewczyk B, Kata R, Nowak G. Rise in zinc affinity for the NMDA receptor evoked by chronic imipramine is species-specific. Pol J Pharmacol 2001;53:641-645.View Abstract
  • 94.Nowak G, Schlegel-Zawadzka M. Alterations in serum and brain trace element levels after antidepressant treatment. Part I. Zinc. Biol Trace Elem Res 1999;67:85-92.View Abstract
  • 95.Skolnick P. Antidepressants for the new millennium. Eur J Pharmacol 1999;375:31-40.View Abstract
  • 96.Ossowska G, Klenk-Majewska B, Danilczuk Z et al. Effects of coadministration of antidepressants and zinc in chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) model of depression. In: Lach H, ed. 13th International Symposium Molecular and Phsyiological Aspects of Regulatory Processes of the Organism. Cracow, Poland; 2004:332-333.
  • 97.Quiroz JA, Singh J, Gould TD et al. Emerging experimental therapeutics for bipolar disorder: clues from the molecular pathophysiology. Mol Psychiatry 2004;9:756-776.View Abstract
  • 98.Maes M, Vandoolaeghe E, Neels H et al. Lower serum zinc in major depression is a sensitive marker of treatment resistance and of the immune/inflammatory response in that illness. Biol Psychiatry 1997;42:349-358.View Abstract
  • 99.Schlegel-Zawadzka M, Zieba A, Dudek D et al. Effect of depression and of antidepressant therapy on serum zinc levels: a preliminary clinical study. Trace Elements in Man and Animals. 10 vol. New York: Kluwer Academic, Plenum Press; 2000:607-610.
  • 100.Nowak G, Szewczyk B. Mechanisms contributing to antidepressant zinc actions. Pol J Pharmacol 2002;54:587-592.View Abstract
  • 101.Kroczka B, Zieba A, Dudek D et al. Zinc exhibits an antidepressant-like effect in the forced swimming test in mice. Pol J Pharmacol 2000;52:403-406.View Abstract
  • 102.Kroczka B, Branski P, Palucha A et al. Antidepressant-like properties of zinc in rodent forced swim test. Brain Res Bull 2001;55:297-300.View Abstract
  • 103.Szewczyk B, Branski P, Wieronska JM et al. Interaction of zinc with antidepressants in the forced swimming test in mice. Pol J Pharmacol 2002;54:681-685.View Abstract
  • 104.Nowak G, Szewczyk B, Sadlik K et al. Reduced potency of zinc to interact with NMDA receptors in hippocampal tissue of suicide victims. Pol J Pharmacol 2003;55:455-459.View Abstract
  • 105.O’Connor DT, Strause L, Saltman P et al. Serum zinc is unaffected by effective captopril treatment of hypertension. J Clin Hypertens 1987;3:405-408.
  • 106.Abu-Hamdan DK, Desai H, Sondheimer J et al. Taste acuity and zinc metabolism in captopril-treated hypertensive male patients. Am J Hypertens 1988;1:303S-308S.View Abstract
  • 107.Golik A, Modai D, Averbukh Z et al. Zinc metabolism in patients treated with captopril versus enalapril. Metabolism 1990;39:665-667.View Abstract
  • 108.Golik A, Zaidenstein R, Dishi V et al. Effects of captopril and enalapril on zinc metabolism in hypertensive patients. J Am Coll Nutr 1998;17:75-78.View Abstract
  • 109.Peczkowska M. [Influence of angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibitors on selected parameters of zinc metabolism]. Pol Arch Med Wewn 1996;96:32-38.View Abstract
  • 110.Golik A, Cohen N, Ramot Y et al. Type II diabetes mellitus, congestive heart failure, and zinc metabolism. Biol Trace Elem Res 1993;39:171-175.View Abstract
  • 111.Lee SC, Park SW, Kim DK et al. Iron supplementation inhibits cough associated with ACE inhibitors. Hypertension 2001;38:166-170.View Abstract
  • 112.Waler SM, Rolla G. Plaque inhibiting effect of combinations of chlorhexidine and the metal ions zinc and tin: a preliminary report. Acta Odontol Scand 1980;38:213-217.View Abstract
  • 113.Sanz M, Vallcorba N, Fabregues S et al. The effect of a dentifrice containing chlorhexidine and zinc on plaque, gingivitis, calculus and tooth staining. J Clin Periodontol 1994;21:431-437.View Abstract
  • 114.Polk RE, Healy DP, Sahai J et al. Effect of ferrous sulfate and multivitamins with zinc on absorption of ciprofloxacin in normal volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989;33:1841-1844.View Abstract
  • 115.Polk RE. Drug-drug interactions with ciprofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones. Am J Med 1989;87:76S-81S.View Abstract
  • 116.Kara M, Hasinoff BB, McKay DW, Campbell NR. Clinical and chemical interactions between iron preparations and ciprofloxacin. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1991;31:257-261.
  • 117.Campbell NR, Kara M, Hasinoff BB et al. Norfloxacin interaction with antacids and minerals. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1992;33:115-116.View Abstract
  • 118.Brouwers JR. Drug interactions with quinolone antibacterials. Drug Saf 1992;7:268-281.View Abstract
  • 119.Balfour JA, Wiseman LR. Moxifloxacin. Drugs 1999;57:363-373; discussion 374.View Abstract
  • 120.Wong PY, Zhu M, Li RC. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between intravenous ciprofloxacin and oral ferrous sulfate. J Chemother 2000;12:286-293.
  • 121.Fischer T. On 8-hydroxyquinoline–zinc oxide incompatibility. Dermatologica 1974;149:129-135.View Abstract
  • 122.Stockley IH. Drug Interactions. 6th ed. London: Pharmaceutical Press; 2002.
  • 123.Albert A, Rees CW. Avidity of the tetracyclines for the cations of metals. Nature 1956;177:433-434.View Abstract
  • 123a.Camacho FM, Garcia-Hernandez MJ. Zinc aspartate, biotin, and clobetasol propionate in the treatment of alopecia areata in childhood. Pediatr Dermatol 1999;16(4):336-338.
  • 124.Flynn A, Pories WJ, Strain WH et al. Rapid serum-zinc depletion associated with corticosteroid therapy. Lancet 1971;2:1169-1172.View Abstract
  • 125.Fodor L, Ahnefeld FW, Fazekas AT. [Studies on the glucocorticoid control of zinc metabolism]. Infusionsther Klin Ernahr 1975;2:210-213.View Abstract
  • 126.Briggs MH, Briggs M, Austin J. Effects of steroid pharmaceuticals on plasma zinc. Nature 1971;232:480-481.View Abstract
  • 127.Wilson H, Lovelace JR, Hardy JD. The adrenocortical response to extensive burns in man. Ann Surg 1955;141:175-184.View Abstract
  • 128.Mandelstam P, Goldzieher JW, Soroff HS, Green N. The pituitary-adrenal axis: acute adrenocortical insufficiency and persistent occult dysfunction following thermal injury. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1958;18:284-299.
  • 129.Yunice AA, Czerwinski AW, Lindeman RD. Influence of synthetic corticosteroids on plasma zinc and copper levels in humans. Am J Med Sci 1981;282:68-74.View Abstract
  • 130.Fell GS, Fleck A, Cuthbertson DP et al. Urinary zinc levels as an indication of muscle catabolism. Lancet 1973;1:280-282.View Abstract
  • 131.Dorea JG, Ferraz E, Queiroz EF. [Effects of anovulatory steroids on serum levels of zinc and copper]. Arch Latinoam Nutr 1982;32:101-110.View Abstract
  • 132.Herzberg M, Lusky A, Blonder J, Frenkel Y. The effect of estrogen replacement therapy on zinc in serum and urine. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:1035-1040.View Abstract
  • 133.Pinelli P, Trivulzio S, Colombo R et al. Antiprostatic effect of cimetidine in rats. Agents Actions 1987;22:197-201.View Abstract
  • 134.Sturniolo GC, Montino MC, Rossetto L et al. Inhibition of gastric acid secretion reduces zinc absorption in man. J Am Coll Nutr 1991;10:372-375.View Abstract
  • 135.Frommer DJ. The healing of gastric ulcers by zinc sulphate. Med J Aust 1975;2:793-796.View Abstract
  • 136.Wester PO. Urinary zinc excretion during treatment with different diuretics. Acta Med Scand 1980;208:209-212.
  • 137.Houang ET, Ahmet Z, Lawrence AG. Successful treatment of four patients with recalcitrant vaginal trichomoniasis with a combination of zinc sulfate douche and metronidazole therapy. Sex Transm Dis 1997;24:116-119.View Abstract
  • 138.Balogh Z, El-Ghobarey AF, Fell GS et al. Plasma zinc and its relationship to clinical symptoms and drug treatment in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1980;39:329-332.View Abstract
  • 139.Elling H, Kiilerich S, Sabro J, Elling P. Influence of a non-steroid antirheumatic drug on serum and urinary zinc in healthy volunteers. Scand J Rheumatol 1980;9:161-163.View Abstract
  • 140.Dendrinou-Samara C, Tsotsou G, Ekateriniadou LV et al. Anti-inflammatory drugs interacting with Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pt(II) metal ions. J Inorg Biochem 1998;71:171-179.View Abstract
  • 141.Anderson LA, Hakojarvi SL, Boudreaux SK. Zinc acetate treatment in Wilson’s disease. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:78-87.
  • 142.Brewer GJ, Dick RD, Johnson VD et al. Treatment of Wilson’s disease with zinc: XV long-term follow-up studies. J Lab Clin Med 1998;132:264-278.
  • 143.Li T, Lin R, Du S, Qu Z. [Long-term follow-up of combined therapy with large-dose zinc sulfate and low-dose penicillamine in children with hepatolenticular degeneration]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Yi Chuan Xue Za Zhi 1999;16:19-21.View Abstract
  • 144.Lu JX, Combs GF, Jr. Penicillamine: pharmacokinetics and differential effects on zinc and copper status in chicks. J Nutr 1992;122:355-362.
  • 145.Wester PO. Tissue zinc at autopsy—relation to medication with diuretics. Acta Med Scand 1980;208:269-271.View Abstract
  • 146.Reyes AJ, Olhaberry JV, Leary WP et al. Urinary zinc excretion, diuretics, zinc deficiency and some side-effects of diuretics. S Afr Med J 1983;64:936-941.View Abstract
  • 146a.Golik A, Modai D, Weissgarten J, et al. Hydrochlorothiazide-amiloride causes excessive urinary zinc excretion. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1987;42(1):42-4.
  • 146b.Verho M, Bossaller W, Heinen B. Serum trace-element levels in piretanide-treated hypertensives: a double-blind trial against hydrochlorothiazide plus amiloride. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res 1987;7(1):5-11.
  • 147.Ripamonti C, Zecca E, Brunelli C et al. A randomized, controlled clinical trial to evaluate the effects of zinc sulfate on cancer patients with taste alterations caused by head and neck irradiation. Cancer 1998;82:1938-1945.View Abstract
  • 148.Matson A, Wright M, Oliver A et al. Zinc supplementation at conventional doses does not improve the disturbance of taste perception in hemodialysis patients. J Ren Nutr 2003;13:224-228.
  • 149.Neuvonen PJ. Interactions with the absorption of tetracyclines. Drugs 1976;11:45-54.View Abstract
  • 150.Weismann K. Chelating drugs and zinc. Dan Med Bull 1986;33:208-211.View Abstract
  • 151.Penttila O, Hurme H, Neuvonen PJ. Effect of zinc sulphate on the absorption of tetracycline and doxycycline in man. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1975;9:131-134.View Abstract
  • 152.Andersson KE, Bratt L, Dencker H, Lanner E. Some aspects of the intestinal absorption of zinc in man. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1976;09:423-428.View Abstract
  • 153.Andersson KE, Bratt J, Dencker H et al. Inhibition of tetracycline absorption by zinc. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1976;10:59-62.
  • 154.Mapp RK, McCarthy TJ. The effect of zinc sulphate and of bicitropeptide on tetracycline absorption. S Afr Med J 1976;50:1829-1830.View Abstract
  • 155.Brion M, Lambs L, Berthon G. Metal ion-tetracycline interactions in biological fluids. Part 5. Formation of zinc complexes with tetracycline and some of its derivatives and assessment of their biological significance. Agents Actions 1985;17:229-242.View Abstract
  • 156.Weimar VM, Puhl SC, Smith WH, tenBroeke JE. Zinc sulfate in acne vulgaris. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:1776-1778.View Abstract
  • 157.Michaelsson G, Juhlin L, Ljunghall K. A double-blind study of the effect of zinc and oxytetracycline in acne vulgaris. Br J Dermatol 1977;97:561-566.View Abstract
  • 158.Michaelsson G, Vahlquist A, Juhlin L. Serum zinc and retinol-binding protein in acne. Br J Dermatol 1977;96:283-286.View Abstract
  • 159.Cunliffe WJ, Burke B, Dodman B, Gould DJ. A double-blind trial of a zinc sulphate/citrate complex and tetracycline in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Br J Dermatol 1979;101:321-325.View Abstract
  • 160.Reyes AJ, Leary WP, Lockett CJ, Alcocer L. Diuretics and zinc. S Afr Med J 1982;62:373-375.View Abstract
  • 161.Mountokalakis T, Dourakis S, Karatzas N et al. Zinc deficiency in mild hypertensive patients treated with diuretics. J Hypertens Suppl 1984;2:S571-S572.View Abstract
  • 162.Lerman-Sagie T, Statter M, Szabo G, Lerman P. Effect of valproic acid therapy on zinc metabolism in children with primary epilepsy. Clin Neuropharmacol 1987;10:80-86.View Abstract
  • 163.Hurd RW, Van Rinsvelt HA, Wilder BJ et al. Selenium, zinc, and copper changes with valproic acid: possible relation to drug side effects. Neurology 1984;34:1393-1395.View Abstract
  • 164.Kaji M, Ito M, Okuno T et al. Serum copper and zinc levels in epileptic children with valproate treatment. Epilepsia 1992;33:555-557.View Abstract
  • 165.Sozuer DT, Barutcu UB, Karakoc Y et al. The effects of antiepileptic drugs on serum zinc and copper levels in children. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 1995;6:265-269.View Abstract
  • 166.Simpson RI, Bryce-Smith D. Cutaneous manifestations of zinc deficiency during treatment with anticonvulsants. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1985;290:1215-1216.
  • 167.Pinto JT. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions of foods and drugs. Top Clin Nutr 1991;6:14-33.
  • 168.Karaivanova VD, Manolov I, Minassyan ML et al. Metal complexes of warfarin sodium. Pharmazie 1994;49:856-857.View Abstract
  • 169.Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Campa A. Zinc status in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Nutr 2000;130:1421S-1423S.View Abstract
  • 170.Fabris N, Mocchegiani E, Galli M et al. AIDS, zinc deficiency, and thymic hormone failure. JAMA 1988;259:839-840.View Abstract
  • 171.Periquet BA, Jammes NM, Lambert WE et al. Micronutrient levels in HIV-1-infected children. AIDS 1995;9:887-893.View Abstract
  • 172.Tomaka FL, Imoch PJ, Reiter WM et al. Prevalence of nutritional deficiencies in patients with HIV infection. Int Conf AIDS 1994:221.
  • 173.Sappey C, Leclercq P, Coudray C et al. Vitamin, trace element and peroxide status in HIV seropositive patients: asymptomatic patients present a severe beta-carotene deficiency. Clin Chim Acta 1994;230:35-42.View Abstract
  • 174.Mocchegiani E, Veccia S, Ancarani F et al. Benefit of oral zinc supplementation as an adjunct to zidovudine (AZT) therapy against opportunistic infections in AIDS. Int J Immunopharmacol 1995;17:719-727.View Abstract
  • 175.Baum MK, Javier JJ, Mantero-Atienza E et al. Zidovudine-associated adverse reactions in a longitudinal study of asymptomatic HIV-1-infected homosexual males. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991;4:1218-1226.View Abstract
  • 176.Bogden JD, Kemp FW, Han S et al. Status of selected nutrients and progression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:809-815.View Abstract
  • 177.Tang AM, Graham NM, Kirby AJ et al. Dietary micronutrient intake and risk of progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected homosexual men. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138:937-951.View Abstract
  • 178.Tang AM, Graham NM, Saah AJ. Effects of micronutrient intake on survival in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:1244-1256.View Abstract
  • 179.Campa A, Lai H, Shor-Posner G et al. Relationship between zinc deficiency and survival in HIV+ homosexual men. FASEB J 1998:A217.
  • 180.Bobat R, Coovadia H, Stephen C et al. Safety and efficacy of zinc supplementation for children with HIV-1 infection in South Africa: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366:1862-1867.View Abstract
  • 181.Carcamo C, Hooton T, Weiss NS et al. Randomized controlled trial of zinc supplementation for persistent diarrhea in adults with HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2006;43:197-201.View Abstract
  • 182.Ambanelli U, Ferraccioli GF, Serventi G, Vaona GL. Changes in serum and urinary zinc induced by ASA and indomethacin. Scand J Rheumatol 1982;11:63-64.View Abstract
  • 183.Kim EY, Chang SY, Chung JM et al. Attenuation of Zn2+ neurotoxicity by aspirin: role of N-type Ca2+ channel and the carboxyl acid group. Neurobiol Dis 2001;8:774-783.View Abstract
  • 184.Watkins DW, Khalafi R, Cassidy MM, Vahouny GV. Alterations in calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc metabolism by dietary cholestyramine. Dig Dis Sci 1985;30:477-482.View Abstract
  • 185.Adami S, Bhalla AK, Dorizzi R et al. The acute-phase response after bisphosphonate administration. Calcif Tissue Int 1987;41:326-331.View Abstract
  • 186.Gur A, Colpan L, Cevik R et al. Comparison of zinc excretion and biochemical markers of bone remodelling in the assessment of the effects of alendronate and calcitonin on bone in postmenopausal osteoporosis. Clin Biochem 2005;38:66-72.View Abstract
  • 187.Hidalgo M, Eckhardt SG. Development of matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors in cancer therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93:178-193.View Abstract
  • 188.Stanciute D, Didziapetriene J, Kadziauskas J. [Expression of matrix metalloproteinases in patients with malignant tumors]. Medicina (Kaunas) 2004;40:1143-1150.View Abstract
  • 189.Vaisman DN, McCarthy AD, Cortizo AM. Bone-specific alkaline phosphatase activity is inhibited by bisphosphonates: role of divalent cations. Biol Trace Elem Res 2005;104:131-140.View Abstract
  • 190.Boissier S, Ferreras M, Peyruchaud O et al. Bisphosphonates inhibit breast and prostate carcinoma cell invasion, an early event in the formation of bone metastases. Cancer Res 2000;60:2949-2954.View Abstract
  • 191.Powanda MC, Henriksen EL, Ayala E, Canonico PG. Clofibrate-induced alterations in serum protein patterns. Biochem Pharmacol 1976;25:785-788.View Abstract
  • 192.Powanda MC, Blackburn BS, Bostian KA et al. Clofibrate-induced alterations in zinc, iron and copper metabolism. Biochem Pharmacol 1978;27:125-127.View Abstract
  • 193.Norregaard L, Frederiksen D, Nielsen EO, Gether U. Delineation of an endogenous zinc-binding site in the human dopamine transporter. EMBO J 1998;17:4266-4273.View Abstract
  • 194.Schetz JA, Chu A, Sibley DR. Zinc modulates antagonist interactions with D2-like dopamine receptors through distinct molecular mechanisms. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999;289:956-964.View Abstract
  • 195.Gillin JC, Carpenter WT, Hambidge KM et al. Zinc and copper in patients with schizophrenia. Encephale 1982;8:435-444.View Abstract
  • 196.Andrews RC. An update of the zinc deficiency theory of schizophrenia: identification of the sex determining system as the site of action of reproductive zinc deficiency. Med Hypotheses 1992;38:284-291.View Abstract
  • 197.Pfeiffer CC, Bacchi D. Copper, zinc, manganese, niacin and. pyridoxine in the schizophrenics. J Appl Nutr 1975;27:9-39.
  • 198.Maier RH, Purser SM, Nicholson DL, Pories WJ. The cytotoxic interaction of inorganic trace elements with EDTA and cisplatin in sensitive and resistant human ovarian cancer cells. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 1997;33:218-221.View Abstract
  • 199.Solecki TJ, Aviv A, Bogden JD. Effect of a chelating drug on balance and tissue distribution of four essential metals. Toxicology 1984;31:207-216.View Abstract
  • 200.Butterworth CE Jr, Tamura T. Folic acid safety and toxicity: a brief review. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;50:353-358.View Abstract
  • 201.Campbell NR. How safe are folic acid supplements? Arch Intern Med 1996;156:1638-1644.
  • 202.Fjellner B. Drug-induced lupus erythematosus aggravated by oral zinc therapy. Acta Derm Venereol 1979;59:368-370.View Abstract
  • 203.Khanna VJ, Shieh S, Benjamin J et al. Necrolytic acral erythema associated with hepatitis C: effective treatment with interferon alfa and zinc. Arch Dermatol 2000;136:755-757.View Abstract
  • 204.Grider A, Vazquez F. Nystatin affects zinc uptake in human fibroblasts. Biol Trace Elem Res 1996;54:97-104.View Abstract
  • 205.Newsome DA, Swartz M, Leone NC et al. Oral zinc in macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 1988;106:192-198.View Abstract
  • 206.Stur M, Tittl M, Reitner A, Meisinger V. Oral zinc and the second eye in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1996;37:1225-1235.View Abstract
  • 207.Mares-Perlman JA, Klein R, Klein BE et al. Association of zinc and antioxidant nutrients with age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114:991-997.View Abstract
  • 208.A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS Report No 8. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1417-1436.
  • 209.A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS Report No 9. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1439-1452.
  • 210.Bartlett H, Eperjesi F. Age-related macular degeneration and nutritional supplementation: a review of randomised controlled trials. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2003;23:383-399.View Abstract
  • 211.Antioxidant vitamins and zinc for macular degeneration. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2003;45:45-46.
  • 212.Falsini B, Piccardi M, Iarossi G et al. Influence of short-term antioxidant supplementation on macular function in age-related maculopathy: a pilot study including electrophysiologic assessment. Ophthalmology 2003;110:51-60; discussion 61.View Abstract
  • 213.Clemons TE, Kurinij N, Sperduto RD. Associations of mortality with ocular disorders and an intervention of high-dose antioxidants and zinc in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. AREDS Report No 13. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:716-726.View Abstract
  • 214.Richer S, Stiles W, Statkute L et al. Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: the Veterans LAST study (Lutein Antioxidant Supplementation Trial). Optometry 2004;75:216-230.View Abstract
  • 215.Van Leeuwen R, Boekhoorn S, Vingerling JR et al. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of age-related macular degeneration. JAMA2005;294:3101-3107.
  • 216.Evans JR. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006:CD000254.View Abstract
  • 217.Crowther RS, Marriott C. Counter-ion binding to mucus glycoproteins. J Pharm Pharmacol 1984;36:21-26.View Abstract
  • 218.Pecoud A, Donzel P, Schelling JL. Effect of foodstuffs on the absorption of zinc sulfate. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1975;17:469-474.View Abstract
  • 219.Spencer H, Kramer L, Norris C, Osis D. Effect of calcium and phosphorus on zinc metabolism in man. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:1213-1218.View Abstract
  • 220.Dawson-Hughes B, Seligson FH, Hughes VA. Effects of calcium carbonate and hydroxyapatite on zinc and iron retention in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1986;44:83-88.View Abstract
  • 221.Hwang SJ, Lai YH, Chen HC, Tsai JH. Comparisons of the effects of calcium carbonate and calcium acetate on zinc tolerance test in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 1992;19:57-60.View Abstract
  • 222.Argiratos V, Samman S. The effect of calcium carbonate and calcium citrate on the absorption of zinc in healthy female subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48:198-204.View Abstract
  • 223.Hwang SJ, Chang JM, Lee SC et al. Short- and long-term uses of calcium acetate do not change hair and serum zinc concentrations in hemodialysis patients. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1999;59:83-87.View Abstract
  • 224.Hoogenraad TU, van den Hamer CJ. 3 years of continuous oral zinc therapy in 4 patients with Wilson’s disease. Acta Neurol Scand 1983;67:356-364.
  • 225.Fischer PW, Giroux A, L’Abbe MR. Effect of zinc supplementation on copper status in adult man. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:743-746.
  • 226.Cossack ZT, van den Hamer CJ. Kinetics of copper absorption in zinc-overload states and following the withdrawal of zinc supplement: the role of endogenous zinc status. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1987;6:296-301.View Abstract
  • 227.Gyorffy EJ, Chan H. Copper deficiency and microcytic anemia resulting from prolonged ingestion of over-the-counter zinc. Am J Gastroenterol 1992;87:1054-1055.View Abstract
  • 228.Brumas V, Venturini M, Filella M, Berthon G. Quantitative investigation of copper(II) and zinc(II) complexes with S-carboxymethyl-I-cysteine and computer-simulated appraisal of their potential significance in vivo. J Inorg Biochem 1989;37:309-323.View Abstract
  • 229.Horn NM, Thomas AL, Tompkins JD. The effect of histidine and cysteine on zinc influx into rat and human erythrocytes. J Physiol 1995;489(Pt 1):73-80.View Abstract
  • 230.Sturniolo GC, Di Leo V, Ferronato A et al. Zinc supplementation tightens “leaky gut” in Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2001;7:94-98.
  • 231.Wapnir RA, Lee SY. Dietary regulation of copper absorption and storage in rats: effects of sodium, zinc and histidine-zinc. J Am Coll Nutr 1993;12:714-719.View Abstract
  • 232.Keller KA, Chu Y, Grider A, Coffield JA. Supplementation with I-histidine during dietary zinc repletion improves short-term memory in zinc-restricted young adult male rats. J Nutr 2000;130:1633-1640.
  • 233.Kordas K, Stoltzfus RJ. New evidence of iron and zinc interplay at the enterocyte and neural tissues. J Nutr 2004;134:1295-1298.View Abstract
  • 234.Solomons NW. Competitive interaction of iron and zinc in the diet: consequences for human nutrition. J Nutr 1986;116:927-935.View Abstract
  • 235.Solomons NW, Jacob RA. Studies on the bioavailability of zinc in humans: effects of heme and nonheme iron on the absorption of zinc. Am J Clin Nutr 1981;34:475-482.View Abstract
  • 236.Rossander-Hulten L, Brune M, Sandstrom B et al. Competitive inhibition of iron absorption by manganese and zinc in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54:152-156.View Abstract
  • 237.Peres JM, Bureau F, Neuville D et al. Inhibition of zinc absorption by iron depends on their ratio. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2001;15:237-241.View Abstract
  • 238.Meadows NJ, Grainger SL, Ruse W et al. Oral iron and the bioavailability of zinc. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1983;287:1013-1014.View Abstract
  • 239.O’Brien KO, Zavaleta N, Caulfield LE et al. Prenatal iron supplements impair zinc absorption in pregnant Peruvian women. J Nutr 2000;130:2251-2255.
  • 240.Schultink W, Merzenich M, Gross R et al. Effects of iron-zinc supplementation on the iron, zinc, and vitamin A status of anaemic pre-school children in Indonesia. Food Nutr Bull 1997;18:311-317.
  • 241.Lind T, Lonnerdal B, Stenlund H et al. A community-based randomized controlled trial of iron and zinc supplementation in Indonesian infants: interactions between iron and zinc. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:883-890.
  • 242.Donangelo CM, Woodhouse LR, King SM et al. Supplemental zinc lowers measures of iron status in young women with low iron reserves. J Nutr 2002;132:1860-1864.View Abstract
  • 243.Fischer Walker C, Kordas K, Stoltzfus RJ, Black RE. Interactive effects of iron and zinc on biochemical and functional outcomes in supplementation trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82:5-12.View Abstract
  • 244.Muñoz EC, Rosado JL, Lopez P et al. Iron and zinc supplementation improves indicators of vitamin A status of Mexican preschoolers. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:789-794.
  • 245.Spencer H, Norris C, Williams D. Inhibitory effects of zinc on magnesium balance and magnesium absorption in man. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:479-484.View Abstract
  • 246.Brumas V, Hacht B, Filella M, Berthon G. Can N-acetyl-I-cysteine affect zinc metabolism when used as a paracetamol antidote? Agents Actions 1992;36:278-288.
  • 247.Kulkarni RR, Patki PS, Jog VP et al. Treatment of osteoarthritis with a herbomineral formulation: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. J Ethnopharmacol 1991;33:91-95.View Abstract
  • 248.Cullinan MP, Powell RN, Faddy MJ, Seymour GJ. Efficacy of a dentifrice and oral rinse containing sanguinaria extract in conjunction with initial periodontal therapy. Aust Dent J 1997;42:47-51.View Abstract
  • 249.Harper DS, Mueller LJ, Fine JB et al. Effect of 6 months use of a dentifrice and oral rinse containing sanguinaria extract and zinc chloride upon the microflora of the dental plaque and oral soft tissues. J Periodontol 1990;61:359-363.
  • 250.Harper DS, Mueller LJ, Fine JB et al. Clinical efficacy of a dentifrice and oral rinse containing sanguinaria extract and zinc chloride during 6 months of use. J Periodontol 1990;61:352-358.
  • 251.Kopczyk RA, Abrams H, Brown AT et al. Clinical and microbiological effects of a sanguinaria-containing mouthrinse and dentifrice with and without fluoride during 6 months of use. J Periodontol 1991;62:617-622.
  • 252.Mallatt ME, Beiswanger BB, Drook CA et al. Clinical effect of a sanguinaria dentifrice on plaque and gingivitis in adults. J Periodontol 1989;60:91-95.View Abstract
  • 253.Southard GL, Parsons LG, Thomas LG Jr et al. The relationship of sanguinaria extract concentration and zinc ion to plaque and gingivitis. J Clin Periodontol 1987;14:315-319.View Abstract
  • 254.Arnold LE, Pinkham SM, Votolato N. Does zinc moderate essential fatty acid and amphetamine treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2000;10:111-117.
  • .[No authors listed.] Minerals. In: Drug facts and comparisons. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; 2000:27-51.
  • .[No authors listed.] Zinc lozenges reduce the duration of common cold symptoms. Nutr Rev 1997;55:82-88. (Review)
  • .Abu-Hamdan DK, Mahajan SK, Migdal S, et al. Zinc tolerance test in uremia: effect of calcitriol supplementation. J Am Coll Nutr 1988;7(3):235-240.
  • .Abu-Hamdan DK, Mahajan SK, Migdal SD, et al. Zinc tolerance test in uremia: effect of ferrous sulfate and aluminum hydroxide. Ann Intern Med 1986;104(1):50-52.
  • .Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS Report No. 8. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119(10):1417-1436.
  • .Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss:AREDS Report No. 9. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1439-1452.
  • .Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. Associations of mortality with ocular disorders and an intervention of high-dose antioxidants and zinc in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:716-726.
  • .Aggett PJ, Crofton RW, Khin C, et al. The mutual inhibitory effects on their bioavailability of inorganic zinc and iron. Prog Clin Biol Res 1983;129:117-124.
  • .Agren MS, Stromberg HE, Rindby A, et al. Selenium, zinc, iron and copper levels in serum of patients with arterial and venous leg ulcers. Acta Derm Venereol 1986;66:237-240.
  • .Altaf W, Perveen S, Rehman KU, et al. Zinc supplementation in oral rehydration solutions: experimental assessment and mechanisms of action. J Am Coll Nutr 2002;21(1):26-32.
  • .Ambra R, Mocchegiani E, Giacconi R, et al. Characterization of the hsp70 response in lymphoblasts from aged and centenarian subjects and differential effects of in vitro zinc supplementation. Exp Gerontol 2004;39(10):1475-1484.
  • .Amer M, Bahgat MR, Tosson Z, et al. Serum zinc in acne vulgaris. Int J Dermatol 1982;21:481-484.
  • .Ames BN. DNA damage from micronutrient deficiencies is likely to be a major cause of cancer. Mutat Res 2001;475(1-2):7-20. (Review)
  • .Ames BN. Micronutrient deficiencies: a major cause of DNA damage. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000;889:87-106. (Review)
  • .Anderson LA, Hakojarvi SL, Boudreaux SK. Zinc acetate treatment in Wilson’s disease. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32(1):78-87. (Review)
  • .Anderson RA, Roussel AM, Zouari N, et al. Potential antioxidant effects of zinc and chromium supplementation in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20(3):212-218.
  • .Andersson SO, Wolk A, Bergstrom R, et al. Energy, nutrient intake and prostate cancer risk: a population-based case-control study in Sweden. Int J Cancer 1996;68(6):716-722.
  • .Angus RM, Sambrook PN, Pocock NA, et al. Dietary intake and bone mineral density. Bone Miner 1988;4(3):265-277.
  • .Arda HN, Tuncel U, Akdogan O, et al. The role of zinc in the treatment of tinnitus. Otol Neurotol 2003;24(1):86-89.
  • .Arnold LE. Alternative treatments for adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001;931:310-341. (Review)
  • .Bakan P. Confusion, lethargy and leukonychia. J Orthomol Med 1990;5:198-202.
  • .Bandlish U, Prabhakar BR, Wadehra PL. Plasma zinc level estimation in enlarged prostate. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 1988;31:231-234.
  • .Barceloux DG. Zinc. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999;37(2):279-292.
  • .Basu TK, Donaldson D. Intestinal absorption in health and disease: micronutrients. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2003;17(6):957-979.
  • .Baum M, Cassetti L, Bonvehi P, et al. Inadequate dietary intake and altered nutrition status in early HIV-1 infection. Nutrition 1994;10(1):16-20.
  • .Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Lu Y, et al. Micronutrients and HIV-1 disease progression. AIDS 1995;9(9):1051-1056.
  • .Bedwal RS, Bahuguna A. Zinc, copper and selenium in reproduction. Experientia 1994;50(7):626-640. (Review)
  • .Belongia EA, Berg R, Liu K. A randomized trial of zinc nasal spray for the treatment of upper respiratory illness in adults. Am J Med 2001;111(2):103-108.
  • .Berg JM, Shi Y. The galvanization of biology: a growing appreciation for the roles of zinc. Science 1996;271:1081-1085.
  • .Berthon G, ed. Handbook of metal-ligand interactions in biological fluids. Vol 1. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1995.
  • .Bettger WJ, O’Dell BL. A critical physiological role of zinc in the structure and function of biomembranes. Life Sci 1981;28(13):1425-1438. (Review)
  • .Bettger WJ, Taylor CJ. Effects of copper and zinc status of rats on the concentration of copper and zinc in the erythrocyte membrane. Nutr Res 1986;6:451-457.
  • .Bhandari N, Bahl R, Taneja S, et al. Effect of routine zinc supplementation on pneumonia in children aged 6 months to 3 years: randomised controlled trial in an urban slum. BMJ 2002;324(7350):1358.
  • .Bhutta ZA, Bird SM, Black RE, et al. Therapeutic effects of oral zinc in acute and persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries: pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72(6):1516-1522.
  • .Bhutta ZA, Black RE, Brown KH, et al. Prevention of diarrhea and pneumonia by zinc supplementation in children in developing countries: pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials: Zinc Investigators’ Collaborative Group. J Pediatr 1999;135(6):689-697.
  • .Bilici M, Yildirim F, Kandil S, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of zinc sulfate in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004;28(1):181-190.
  • .Birmingham CL, Goldner EM, Bakan R. Controlled trial of zinc supplementation in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 1994;15:251-255.
  • .Björksten B, Back O, Gustavson KH, et al. Zinc and immune function in Down’s syndrome. Acta Paediatr Scand 1980;69:183-187.
  • .Black MM. Zinc deficiency and child development. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68(2 Suppl):464S-469S.
  • .Black RE. Therapeutic and preventive effects of zinc on serious childhood infectious diseases in developing countries. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68(2 Suppl):476S-479S.
  • .Black RE. Zinc deficiency and child development. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68(Suppl):464S-469S.
  • .Blostein-Fujii A, DiSilvestro RA, Frid D, et al. Short-term zinc supplementation in women with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: effects on plasma 5'-nucleotidase activities, insulin-like growth factor I concentrations, and lipoprotein oxidation rates in vitro. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66(3):639-642.
  • .Bodgen JD, Oleske JM, Lavenhar MA, et al. Effects of one year supplementation with zinc and other micronutrients on cellular immunity in the elderly. J Am Coll Nutr 1990;9:214-215.
  • .Bogden JD, Oleske JM, Munves EM, et al. Zinc and immunocompetence in the elderly: baseline data on zinc nutriture and immunity in unsupplemented subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1987;46(1):101-109.
  • .Bose A, Coles CL, Gunavathi, et al. Efficacy of zinc in the treatment of severe pneumonia in hospitalized children <2 y old. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:1089-1096.
  • .Bougle D Laroche D Bureau F. Zinc and iron status and growth in healthy infants. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54(10):764-767.
  • .Boukaiba N, Flament C, Acher S, et al. A physiological amount of zinc supplementation: effects on nutritional, lipid, and thymic status in an elderly population. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57(4):566-572.
  • .Brewer GJ, Dick RD, Johnson VD, et al. Treatment of Wilson’s disease with zinc: XV long-term follow-up studies. J Lab Clin Med 1998;132(4):264-278.
  • .Brewer GJ, Johnson VD, Dick RD, et al. Treatment of Wilson’s disease with zinc:XVII: treatment during pregnancy. Hepatology 2000;31(2):364-370.
  • .Brook AC, Johnston DG, Ward MK, et al. Absence of a therapeutic effect of zinc in the sexual dysfunction of hemodialysed patients. Lancet 1980;2:618-620.
  • .Brooks WA, Yunus M, Santosham M, et al. Zinc for severe pneumonia in very young children: double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004;363:1683-1688.
  • .Brown KH, Wuehler S. Zinc and human health: results of recent trials and implication for program interventions and research. Ottawa, Ontario: Micronutrient Initiative; 2000.
  • .Bryce-Smith D. Zinc deficiency: the neglected factor. Chem Br 1989:783-786.
  • .Bryce-Smith D. Pre-natal zinc deficiency. Nurs Times 1986;82(10):44-46.
  • .Bryce-Smith D, Hodgkinson L. The zinc solution. London: Century Arrow; 1987.
  • .Bucci I, Napolitano G, Guiliani C, et al. Zinc sulfate supplementation improves thyroid function in hypozincemic Down children. Biol Trace Elem Res 1999;67;257-268.
  • .Buist RA. Drug-nutrient interactions: an overview. Int Clin Nutr Rev 1984;4(3):114. (Review)
  • .Bureau I, Anderson RA, Arnaud J, et al. Trace mineral status in post menopausal women: impact of hormonal replacement therapy. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2002;16(1):9-13.
  • .Bush AI, Pettingell WH, Multhaup G, et al. Rapid induction of Alzheimer A8 amyloid formation by zinc. Science 1994;265:1464-1465.
  • .Capasso M, Jeng JM, Malavolta M, et al. Zinc dyshomeostasis: a key modulator of neuronal injury. J Alzheimers Dis 2005;8(2):93-108; discussion 209-215. (Review)
  • .Castillo-Duran C, Heresi G, Fisberg M, et al. Controlled trial of zinc supplementation during recovery from malnutrition: effects on growth and immune function. Am J Clin Nutr 1987;45:602-608.
  • .Caulfield LE, Zavaleta N, Figueroa A, et al. Maternal zinc supplementation does not affect size at birth or pregnancy duration in Peru. J Nutr 1999;129(8):1563-1568.
  • .Caulfield LE, Zavaleta N, Shankar AH, et al. Potential contribution of maternal zinc supplementation during pregnancy to maternal and child survival. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68(2 Suppl):499S-508S.
  • .Cerhan JR, Saag KG, Merlino LA, et al. Antioxidant micronutrients and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in a cohort of older women. Am J Epidemiol 2003;157(4):345-354.
  • .Chandra RK. Excessive intake of zinc impairs immune responses. JAMA 1984;252(11):1443.
  • .Cherry FF, Sandstead HH, Rojas P, et al. Adolescent pregnancy: associations among body weight, zinc nutriture, and pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;50(5):945-954.
  • .Cho E, Stampfer MJ, Seddon JM, et al. Prospective study of zinc intake and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Ann Epidemiol 2001;11(5):328-336.
  • .Chooi MK, Todd JK, Boyd ND. Influence of age and sex on plasma zinc levels in normal and diabetic individuals. Nutr Metab 1976;20(2):135-142.
  • .Christian P, Khatry SK, Yamini S, et al. Zinc supplementation might potentiate the effect of vitamin A in restoring night vision in pregnant Nepalese women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73(6):1045-1051.
  • .Clemmensen OJ, Siggaard-Andersen J, Worm AM, et al. Psoriatic arthritis treated with oral zinc suphate. Br J Dermatol 1980;103(4):411-415.
  • .Collipp PJ. Effect of oral zinc supplements on diaper rash in normal infants. J Med Assoc Ga 1989;78(9):621-623.
  • .Constantinidis J. Alzheimer’s disease: the zinc theory. Encephale 1990;16:231-239. [French; English abstract]
  • .Constantinidis J. The hypothesis of zinc deficiency in the pathogenesis of neurofibrillary tangles. Med Hypotheses 1991;35:319-323.
  • .Cordova A, Alvarez-Mon M. Behaviour of zinc in physical exercise: a special reference to immunity and fatigue. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1995;19:439-445.
  • .Cordova A, Navas FJ. Effect of training on zinc metabolism: changes in serum and sweat zinc concentrations in sportsmen. Ann Nutr Metab 1998;42(5):274-282.
  • .Coto JA, Hadden EM, Sauro M, et al. Interleukin 1 regulates secretion of zinc-thymulin by human thymic epithelial cells and its action on T-lymphocyte proliferation and nuclear protein kinase C. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992;89(16):7752-7756.
  • .Cousins RJ. Zinc. In: Ziegler EE, Filer LJ, eds. Present knowledge in nutrition. Washington,DC: ILSI Press; 1996:293-306.
  • .Crofton RW, Gvozdanovic D, Gvozdanovic S, et al. Inorganic zinc and the intestinal absorption of ferrous iron. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;50(1):141-144.
  • .Crow JP, Sampson JB, Zhuang Y, et al. Decreased zinc affinity of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-associated superoxide dismutase mutants leads to enhanced catalysis of tyrosine nitration by peroxynitrite. J Neurochem 1997;69:1936-1944.
  • .Crowther RS, Marriott C. Counter-ion binding to mucus glycoproteins. J Pharm Pharmacol 1984;36:21-26.
  • .Cuajungco MP, Lees GJ. Zinc metabolism in the brain: relevance to human neurodegenerative disorders. Neurobiol Dis 1997;4:137-169.
  • .Cunningham JJ, Fu A, Mearkle PL, et al. Hyperzincuria in individuals with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: concurrent zinc status and the effect of high-dose zinc supplementation. Metabolism 1994;43(12):1558-1562.
  • .Dardenne M, Pleau JM, Nabarra B, et al. Contribution of zinc and other metals to the biological activity of the serum thymic factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1982;79(17):5370-5373.
  • .David TJ, Wells FE, Sharpe TC, et al. Low serum zinc in children with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984;111(5):597-601.
  • .Davidsson L, Almgren A, Sandstrom B, et al. Zinc absorption in adult humans: the effect of iron fortification. Br J Nutr 1995;74:417-425.
  • .Davies S. Assessment of zinc status. Int Clin Nutr Rev 4:122-129.
  • .Davis JS, Cousins RJ. Metallothionein expression in animals: a physiological perspective on function. J Nutr 2000;130:1085-1088.
  • .Dawson EB, Albers J, McGanity WJ. Serum zinc changes due to iron supplementation in teen-age pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;50:848-852.
  • .de Goeij JJ. Nuclear analytical methods in the life sciences. Biol Trace Elem Res 1994;43-45:9-17. (Review)
  • .DeCook CA, Hirsch AR. Anosmia due to inhalational zinc: a case report. Chem Senses 2000;25(5):659.
  • .Dennehy CE, Tsourounis C, Horn AJ. Dietary supplement-related adverse events reported to the California Poison Control System. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2005;62(14):1476-1482.
  • .Dixon JS, Bird HA, Martin MF, et al. Biochemical and clinical changes occurring during the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with novel antirheumatoid drugs. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res 1985;5:25-33.
  • .Domellof M, Dewey KG, Lonnerdal B, et al. The diagnostic criteria for iron deficiency in infants should be reevaluated. J Nutr 2002;132(12):3680-3686.
  • .Donangelo CM, Zapata CL, Woodhouse LR, et al. Zinc absorption and kinetics during pregnancy and lactation in Brazilian women. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82(1):118-124.
  • .Dorea JG, Ferraz E, Queiroz EF. [Effects of anovulatory steroids on serum levels of zinc and copper.] Arch Latinoam Nutr 1982;32(1):101-110. [Portuguese]
  • .Dreno B, Amblard P, Agache P, et al. Low doses of zinc gluconate for inflammatory acne. Acta Derm Venereol 1989;69:541-543.
  • .Dreno B, Daniel F, Allaert FA, et al. Acne: evolution of the clinical practice and therapeutic management of acne between 1996 and 2000. Eur J Dermatol 2003;13(2):166-170. (Review)
  • .Dreno B, Trossaert M, Boiteau HL, et al. Zinc salts effects on granulocyte zinc concentration and chemotaxis in acne patients. Acta Derm Venereol 1992;72(4):250-252.
  • .Dronfield MW, Malone JD, Langman MJ. Zinc in ulcerative colitis: a therapeutic trial and report on plasma levels. Gut 1977;18:33-36.
  • .Duchateau J, Delepesse G, Vrijens R, et al. Beneficial effects of oral zinc duration on the immune response of old people. Am J Med 1981;70:1001-1004.
  • .Duggan C, Fawzi W. Micronutrients and child health: studies in international nutrition and HIV infection. Nutr Rev 2001;59(11):358-369. (Review)
  • .Duggan C, Gannon J, Walker WA. Protective nutrients and functional foods for the gastrointestinal tract. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75(5):789-808. (Review)
  • .Eby GA. Linearity in dose-response from zinc lozenges in treatment of common colds. J Pharm Technol 1995;11:110-122.
  • .Eby G. Where’s the bias? Ann Intern Med 1998;128:75. (Letter)
  • .Eby GA. Zinc ion availability-the determinant of efficacy in zinc lozenge treatment of common colds. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997;40:483-493.
  • .Eby GA. Zinc lozenges: cold cure or candy? Solution chemistry determinations. Biosci Rep 2004;24(1):23-39.
  • .Eby GA, Halcomb WW. Ineffectiveness of zinc gluconate nasal spray and zinc orotate lozenges in common-cold treatment: a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Altern Ther Health Med 2006;12(1):34-38.
  • .Eby GA, Davis DR, Halcomb WW. Reduction in duration of common colds by zinc gluconate lozenges in a double blind study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1984;25(1):20-24.
  • .Eby GA. Zinc ion availability: the determinant of efficacy in zinc lozenge treatment of
  • .common colds. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997;40(4):483-493.
  • .Ervin RB, Kennedy-Stephenson J. Mineral intakes of elderly adult supplement and non-supplement users in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. J Nutr 2002;132:3422-3427.
  • .Estevez AG, Crow JP, Sampson JB, et al. Induction of nitric oxide-dependent apoptosis in motor neurons by zinc-deficient superoxide dismutase. Science 1999;286(5449):2498-2500.
  • .Evans JR. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for age-related macular degeneration (Cochrane Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002(1):CD000254. (Review)
  • .Ewing CI, Gibbs AC, Ashcroft C, et al. Failure of oral zinc supplementation in atopic eczema. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991;45:507-510.
  • .Faber C, Gabriel P, Ibs KH, et al. Zinc in pharmacological doses suppresses allogeneic reaction without affecting the antigenic response. Bone Marrow Transplant 2004;33(12):1241-1246.
  • .Fabris N, Mocchegiani E. Zinc, human diseases and aging. Aging Clin Exp Res 1995;7:77-93.
  • .Fahim MS, Ibrahim HH, Girgis SM, et al. Value of intraprostatic injection of zinc and vitamin C and of ultrasound application in infertile men with chronic prostatitis. Arch Androl 1985;14(1):81-87.
  • .Fahim MS, Wang M, Sutcu MF, et al. Zinc arginine, a 5 alpha-reductase inhibitor, reduces rat ventral prostate weight and DNA without affecting testicular function. Andrologia 1993;25(6):369-375.
  • .Fahim MS, Fahim Z, Der R, et al. Zinc treatment for the reduction of hyperplasia of the prostate. Fed Proc 1976; 35:361.
  • .Falchuk KH. Disturbances in trace elements. In: Fauci A, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, et al, eds. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Health Professional Division; 1998:490-491.
  • .Farvid MS, Jalali M, Siassi F, et al. Comparison of the effects of vitamins and/or mineral supplementation on glomerular and tubular dysfunction in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28(10):2458-2464.
  • .Feillet-Coudray C, Meunier N, Rambeau M, et al. Long-term moderate zinc supplementation increases exchangeable zinc pool masses in late-middle-aged men: the Zenith Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82(1):103-110.
  • .Fischer PWF, Giroux A, L’Abbe MR. Effect of zinc supplementation on copper status in adult man. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40(4):743-746.
  • .Floersheim GL, Lais E. Lack of effect of oral zinc sulfate on wound healing in leg ulcer. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1980;110:1138-1145. [German; English abstract]
  • .Fontaine J, Neve J, Peretz A, et al. Effects of acute and chronic prednisolone treatment on serum zinc levels in rats with adjuvant arthritis. Agents Actions 1991;33(3-4):247-253.
  • .Fortes C, Agabiti N, Fano V, et al. Zinc supplementation and plasma lipid peroxides in an elderly population. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51(2):97-101.
  • .Fortes C, Forastiere F, Agabiti N, et al. The effect of zinc and vitamin A supplementation on immune response in an older population. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998;46(1):19-26.
  • .Fosmire GJ. Zinc toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;51(2):225-227.
  • .Fraker PJ. Roles for cell death in zinc deficiency. J Nutr 2005;135(3):359-362.
  • .Fraker PJ, Gershwin ME, Good RA. Interrelationships between zinc and immune function. Fed Proc 1986;45(5):1474-1479. (Review)
  • .Fraker PJ, King LE, Laakko T, et al. The dynamic link between the integrity of the immune system and zinc status. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1399S-406S. (Review)
  • .Freake HC. Molecular biological approaches to studying trace minerals: why should clinicians care? J Am Coll Nutr 1993;12(3):294-302.
  • .Frederickson CJ. Neurobiology of zinc and zinc-containing neurons. Int Rev Neurobiol 1989;31:145-238.
  • .Frederickson CJ, Danscher G. Zinc-containing neurons in hippocampus and related CNS structures. Prog Brain Res 1990;83:71-84.
  • .Frederickson CJ, Koh J-Y, Bush AI. The neurobiology of zinc in health and disease. Nat Rev 2005;6:449-462. (Review)
  • .Frederickson CJ, Suh SW, Silva D, et al. Importance of zinc in the central nervous system: the zinc-containing neuron. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1471S-83S. (Review)
  • .Freeland-Graves JH. Manganese: an essential nutrient for humans. Nutr Today 1988;23:13-19.
  • .Frommer DJ. The healing of gastric ulcers by zinc sulphate. Med J Aust 1975;2:793-796.
  • .Fung EB, Ritchie LD, Woodhouse LR, et al. Zinc absorption in women during pregnancy and lactation: a longitudinal study. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66(1):80-88.
  • .Garcia-Plaza A, Arenas JI, Belda O, et al. A multicenter clinical trial. Zinc acexamate versus famotidine in the treatment of acute duodenal ulcer. Rev Esp Enferm Dig 1996;88:757-762. [Spanish; English abstract]
  • .Gardner EM, Bernstein ED, Popoff KA, et al. Immune response to influenza vaccine in healthy elderly: lack of association with plasma beta-carotene, retinol, alpha-tocopherol, or zinc. Mech Ageing Dev 2000;117(1-3):29-45.
  • .Gardner JM, Powell CA, Baker-Henningham H, et al. Zinc supplementation and psychosocial stimulation: effects on the development of undernourished Jamaican children. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82(2):399-405.
  • .Garland ML, Hagmeyer KO. The role of zinc lozenges in treatment of the common cold. Ann Pharmacother 1998;32:63-69. (Review)
  • .Gazaryan IG, Krasnikov BF, Ashby GA, et al. Zinc is a potent inhibitor of thiol oxidoreductase activity and stimulates reactive oxygen species production by lipoamide dehydrogenase. J Biol Chem 2002;277(12):10064-10072.
  • .Gersdorff M, Robillard T, Stein F, et al. The zinc sulfate overload test in patients suffering from tinnitus associated with low serum zinc: preliminary report. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Belg 1987;41:498-505. [French; English abstract]
  • .Gibson RS. Zinc: a critical nutrient in growth and development. N Z Med J 1998;111(1061):63-64.
  • .Gibson RS. Zinc nutrition in developing countries. Nutr Res Rev 1994;7:151-173. (Review)
  • .Gibson RS. Zinc supplementation for infants. Lancet 2000;355:2008-2009.
  • .Gibson RS, Donovan UM, Heath AL. Dietary strategies to improve the iron and zinc nutriture of young women following a vegetarian diet. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 1997;51(1):1-16.
  • .Gibson RS, Heywood A, Yaman C, et al. Growth in children from the Wosera subdistrict, Papua New Guinea, in relation to energy and protein intakes and zinc status. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53(3):782-789.
  • .Gibson RS, Huddle JM. Suboptimal zinc status in pregnant Malawian women: its association with low intakes of poorly available zinc, frequent reproductive cycling, and malaria. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67(4):702-709.
  • .Giles L, Smiciklas-Wright H, Fosmire G, et al. Variations in plasma zinc in older men and women. Biol Trace Elem Res 1994;41(3):235-243.
  • .Girodon F, Blache D, Monget AL, et al. Effect of a two-year supplementation with low doses of antioxidant vitamins and/or minerals in elderly subjects on levels of nutrients and antioxidant defense parameters. J Am Coll Nutr 1997;16(4):357-365.
  • .Girodon F, Lombard M, Galan P, et al. Effect of micronutrient supplementation on infection in institutionalized elderly subjects: a controlled trial. Ann Nutr Metab 1997;41(2):98-107.
  • .Godfrey HR, Godfrey NJ, Godfrey JC, et al. A randomized clinical trial on the treatment of oral herpes with topical zinc oxide/glycine. Altern Ther Health Med 2001;7(3):49-54,56.
  • .Goldblum SE, Cohen DA, Jay M, et al. Interleukin 1-induced depression of iron and zinc: role of granulocytes and lactoferrin. Am J Physiol 1987;252:E27-E32.
  • .Goldenberg RL, Tamura T, Neggers Y, et al. The effect of zinc supplementation on pregnancy outcome. JAMA 1995;274(6):463-468.
  • .Golik A, Cohen N, Ramot Y, et al. Type II diabetes mellitus, congestive heart failure, and zinc metabolism. Biol Trace Elem Res 1993;39(2-3):171-175.
  • .Gonick P, Oberleas D, Knechtges T, et al. Atomic absorption spectrophotometric determination of zinc in the prostate. Invest Urol 1969;6:345-347.
  • .Goode HF, Penn ND, Kelleher J, et al. Evidence of cellular zinc depletion in hospitalized but not in healthy elderly subjects. Age Ageing 1991;20(5):345-348.
  • .Goode HF, Purkins L, Heatley RV, et al. The effect of dietary vitamin E deficiency on plasma zinc and copper concentrations. Clin Nutr 1991;10(4):233-235.
  • .Goransson K, Liden S, Odsell L. Oral zinc in acne vulgaris: a clinical and methodological study. Acta Derm Venereol 1978;58:443-448.
  • .Gordon AR, McKinney P. Sources of nutrients in students’ diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61(15):S232-S240.
  • .Goto JJ, Zhu H, Sanchez RJ, et al. Loss of in vitro metal ion binding specificity in mutant copper-zinc superoxide dismutases associated with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Biol Chem 2000;275:1007-1014.
  • .Graf WD, Oleinik OE, Glauser TA, et al. Altered antioxidant enzyme activities in children with a serious adverse experience related to valproic acid therapy. Neuropediatrics 1998;29(4):195-201.
  • .Green A, Parker M, Conte D, et al. Zinc finger protein: a bridge between transition metals and gene regulation. J Trace Elements Exp Med 1998;11:103-118.
  • .Griffin IJ, Hicks PD, Liang LK, et al. Metabolic adaptations to low zinc intakes in premenarcheal girls. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80(2):385-290.
  • .Guadalupe M, Sankaran S, George MD, et al. Viral suppression and immune restoration in the gastrointestinal mucosa of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected patients initiating therapy during primary or chronic infection. J Virol 2006;80(16):8236-8247.
  • .Grüngreiff K, Grüngreiff S, Reinhold D. Zinc deficiency and hepatic encephalopathy: results of a long-term follow-up on zinc supplementation. J Trace Elem Exp Med 2000;13:21-31.
  • .Gueguen S, Pirollet P, Leroy P, et al. Changes in serum retinol, alpha-tocopherol, vitamin C, carotenoids, zinc and selenium after micronutrient supplementation during alcohol rehabilitation. J Am Coll Nutr 2003;22(4):303-310.
  • .Guigoz Y. Recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for the free-living elderly. In: Vellas BJ, Guigoz Y, Garry PJ, et al, eds. The mini nutritional assessment: MNA: nutrition in the elderly. Switzerland: Nestec Ltd; 1997:113-143.
  • .Gupta VL, Chaubey BS. Efficacy of zinc therapy in prevention of crisis in sickle cell anemia: a double blind, randomized controlled clinical trial. J Assoc Physicians India 1995;43(7):467-469.
  • .Gyorkey F, Min KW, Huff JA, et al. Zinc and magnesium in human prostate gland: normal, hyperplastic and neoplastic. Cancer Res 1967;27:1348-1353.
  • .Gyorkey F, Sato CS. In vitro 65Zn-binding capacities of normal, hyperplastic, and carcinomatous human prostate gland. Exp Mol Pathol 1968;8:216-224.
  • .Halbert SC. Diet and nutrition in primary care: from antioxidants to zinc. Prim Care 1997;24(4):825-843.
  • .Hallbrook T, Lanner E. Serum zinc and healing of various leg ulcers. Lancet 1972;2:780-782.
  • .Hallfrisch J, Muller DC. Does diet provide adequate amounts of calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc in a well-educated adult population? Exp Gerontol 1993;28(4-5):473-483.
  • .Hamadani J, Fuchs G, Osendarp S, et al. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy and effects on mental development and behaviour of infants: a follow-up study. Lancet 2002;360(9329):290-294.
  • .Hambidge KM. Zinc deficiency in young children. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65(1):160-1. Comment in Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65(1):13-19. (Editorial)
  • .Hambidge KM. Zinc in the nutrition of children. Nestle Nutr WorkshopSer 1991;23:65-77.
  • .Hambidge KM. Zinc and pneumonia. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83 991-992. (Editorial)
  • .Hambidge KM, King JC, Kern DL, et al. Pre-breakfast plasma zinc concentrations: the effect of previous meals. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 1990;4(4):229-231.
  • .Hambidge KM, Miller L, Naake V. Zinc that exchanges with zinc in plasma within two days: variation with dietary zinc. In: Wastney ME, ed. Proceedings of mathematical modeling in experimental nutrition IV: trace element/mineral metabolism during development. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1992.
  • .Hambidge M. Human zinc deficiency. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1344S-1349S.
  • .Hambidge M. Trace element deficiencies in childhood. In: Suskind RM, Lewinter-Suskind L, eds. Textbook of pediatric nutrition. 2nd ed. New York: Raven Press; 1993:115-126.
  • .Hambidge M, Krebs N. Assessment of zinc status in man. Indian J Pediatr 1995;62(2):169-180.
  • .Hambidge M. Biomarkers of trace mineral intake and status. J Nutr 2003;133(Suppl 3):948S-955S. (Review)
  • .Hambidge M, Krebs N. Zinc and growth. In: Roussel AM, ed. Trace elements in man and animals 10: proceedings of the Tenth International Symposium on Trace Elements in Man and Animals. New York: Plenum Press; 2000:977-980.
  • .Han CM. Changes in body zinc and copper levels in severely burned patients and the effects of oral administration of ZnS04 by a double-blind method. Zhonghua Zheng Xing Shao Shang Wai Ke Za Zhi 1990;6:83-86,155. [Chinese; English abstract]
  • .Hansen M, Sandstrom B, Lonnerdal B. The effect of casein phosphopeptides on zinc and calcium absorption from high phytate infant diets assessed in rat pups and Caco-2 cells. Pediatr Res 1996;40(4):547-552.
  • .Hantson P, Lievens M, Mahieu P. Accidental ingestion of a zinc and copper sulfate preparation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1996;34(6):725-730.
  • .Harvey LJ, Dainty JR, Hollands WJ, et al. Effect of high-dose iron supplements on fractional zinc absorption and status in pregnant women. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85(1):131-136.
  • .Hashim Z, Woodhouse L, King JC. Interindividual variation in circulating zinc concentrations among healthy adult men and women. Int J Food Sci Nutr 1996;47(5):383-390.
  • .Heinitz M. [Clinical biochemical aspects of the prophylaxis and therapy of senile cataract with zinc aspartate.] Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1978;172(5):778-783. [German]
  • .Heinkin RI, Bradley DF. Hypogeusia corrected by nickel and zinc. Life Sci 1970;9:701.
  • .Hemalatha P, Bhaskaram P, Kumar PA, et al. Zinc status of breastfed and formula-fed infants of different gestational ages. J Trop Pediatr 1997;43(1):52-54.
  • .Hemalatha, Bhaskaram P, Qadri SSYH, et al. Assessment of mild zinc deficiency in children. Nutr Res 1993;13(2):115-122.
  • .Hendricks KM, Walker WA. Zinc deficiency in inflammatory bowel disease. Nutr Rev 1988;46(12):401-408.
  • .Hercberg S, Galan P, Preziosi P, et al. The SU.VI.MAX Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the health effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:2335-2342.
  • .High KP. Nutritional strategies to boost immunity and prevent infection in elderly individuals. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33(11):1892-1900. (Review)
  • .Hillstrom L, Pettersson L, Hellbe L, et al. Comparison of oral treatment with zinc sulphate and placebo in acne vulgaris. Br J Dermatol 1977;97:681-684.
  • .Hines Burnham, et al, eds. Drug facts and comparisons. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; 2000:1295. (Review)
  • .Hirt M, Nobel S, Barron E. Zinc nasal gel for the treatment of common cold symptoms: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ear Nose Throat J 2000;79(10):778-780;782.
  • .Hoffman HN II, Phyliky RL, Fleming CR. Zinc-induced copper deficiency. Gastroenterology 1988;94:508-512.
  • .Hotz C, Brown KH. Identifying populations at risk of zinc deficiency: the use of supplementation trials. Nutr Rev 2001;59(3 Pt 1):80-84. (Review)
  • .Hotz C, Gibson RS, Temple L. A home-based method to reduce phytate content and increase zinc bioavailability in maize-based complementary diets. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2001;52(2):133-142.
  • .Hotz C, Lowe NM, Araya M, et al. Assessment of the trace element status of individuals and populations: the example of zinc and copper. J Nutr 2003;133(5 Suppl 1):1563S-1568S.
  • .Hotz C, Peerson JM, Brown KH. Suggested lower cutoffs of serum zinc concentrations for assessing zinc status: reanalysis of the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data (1976-1980). Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:756-764.
  • .Hulisz D. Efficacy of zinc against common cold viruses: an overview. J Am Pharm Assoc 2004;44(5):594-603.
  • .Hunt CD, Johnson PE, Herbel J, et al. Effects of dietary zinc depletion on seminal volume and zinc loss, serum testosterone concentrations and sperm morphology in young men. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;56:148-157.
  • .Ibs KH, Rink L. Zinc-altered immune function. J Nutr 2003;133(5 Suppl 1):1452S-1456S. (Review)
  • .Igarashi A, Yamaguchi M. Increase in bone protein components with healing rat fractures: enhancement by zinc treatment. Int J Mol Med 1999;4(6):615-620.
  • .Igic PG, Lee E, Harper W, et al. Toxic effects associated with consumption of zinc. Mayo Clin Proc 2002;77:713-716.
  • .Ilbert M, Graf PC, Jakob U. Zinc center as redox switch-new function for an old motif. Antioxid Redox Signal 2006;8(5-6):835-846.
  • .Itokawa Y. [Trace elements in long-term total parenteral nutrition.] Nippon Rinsho 1996;54(1):172-178. [Japanese] (Review)
  • .Jackson JL, Lesho E, Peterson C. Zinc and the common cold: a meta-analysis revisited. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1512S-1515S.
  • .Jackson MJ, Lowe NM. Physiological role of zinc. Food Chem 1992;43(3):233-238.
  • .Jackson ML, Peterson C, Lesho E. A meta-analysis of zinc salts lozenges and the common cold. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:2373-2376.
  • .Jafek BW, Linschoten M, Murrow BW. Zicam induced anosmia. American Rhinologic Society 49th Annual Fall Scientific Meeting, 48-49. Available at http://app.american-rhinologic.org/programs/2003ARSFallProgram071503.pdf. Accessed December 12, 2003.
  • .Jameson S. Zinc status in pregnancy: the effect of zinc therapy on perinatal mortality, prematurity, and placental ablation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993;678:178-192.
  • .Job C, Menkes CJ, Delbarre F. Zinc sulphate in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1980;23:1408-1409.
  • .Jonsson B, Hauge B, Larsen MF, et al. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy: a double blind randomised controlled trial. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1996;75:725-729.
  • .Karayalcin S, Arcasoy A, Uzunalimoglu O. Zinc plasma levels after oral zinc tolerance test in nonalcoholic cirrhosis. Dig Dis Sci 1988;33:1096-1102.
  • .Karyadi E, West CE, Schultink W, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of vitamin A and zinc supplementation in persons with tuberculosis in Indonesia: effects on clinical response and nutritional status. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75(4):720-727.
  • .Katz RL, Keen CL, Litt IF, et al. Zinc deficiency in anorexia nervosa. J Adolesc Health Care 1987;8:400-406.
  • .Kauwell GP, Bailey LB, Gregory JF III, et al. Zinc status is not adversely affected by folic acid supplementation and zinc intake does not impair folate utilization in human subjects. J Nutr 1995;125(1):66-72.
  • .Keen CL, Taubeneck MW, Daston GP, et al. Primary and secondary zinc deficiency as factors underlying abnormal CNS development. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993;678:37-47.
  • .Kim J, Paik HY, Joung H, et al. Zinc supplementation reduces fractional zinc absorption in young and elderly Korean women. J Am Coll Nutr 2004;23(4):309-315.
  • .Kimmel PL, Watkins DW, Teller EB, et al. Zinc balance in combined zinc deficiency and uremia. Kidney Int 1988;33(6):1091-1099.
  • .King JC. Do women using oral contraceptive agents require extra zinc? J Nutr 1987;117(1):217-219.
  • .King JC, Keen CL. Zinc. In: Shils M, Olson JA, Shike M, et al, eds. Nutrition in health and disease. 9th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1999:223-239.
  • .King JC, Shames DM, Lowe NM, et al. Effect of acute zinc depletion on zinc homeostasis and plasma zinc kinetics in men. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74(1):116-124.
  • .Kishore V. Effects of copper aspirinate and aspirin on tissue copper, zinc, and iron concentrations following chronic oral treatment in the adjuvant arthritic rat. Biol Trace Elem Res 1990;25(2):123-135.
  • .Kordas K, Stoltzfus RJ. New evidence of iron and zinc interplay at the enterocyte and neural tissues. J Nutr 2004;134(6):1295-1298. (Review)
  • .Kotsaki-Kovatsi VP, Koehler-Samouilidis G, Kovatsis A, et al. Fluctuation of zinc, copper, magnesium and calcium concentrations in guinea pig tissues after administration of captopril (SQ 14225). J Trace Elem Med Biol 1997;11(1):32-36.
  • .Krebs NF, Hambidge KM, Westcott JE, et al. Exchangeable zinc pool size in infants is related to key variables of zinc homeostasis. J Nutr 2003;133(5 Suppl 1):1498S-1501S.
  • .Krebs NF, Westcott JL, Rodden DJ, et al. Exchangeable zinc pool size at birth is smaller in small-for-gestational-age than in appropriate-for-gestational-age preterm infants. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:1340-1343.
  • .Krotiewski M, Gudmundson M, Backstrom P, et al. Zinc and muscle strength and endurance. Acta Physiol Scand 1982;116:309-311.
  • .Kurekci AE, Alpay F, Tanindi S, et al. Plasma trace element, plasma glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase levels in epileptic children receiving antiepileptic drug therapy. Epilepsia 1995;36(6):600-604.
  • .L’Abbe MR, Fischer PW. The effects of dietary zinc on the activity of copper-requiring metalloenzymes in the rat. J Nutr 1984;114(5):823-828.
  • .L’Abbe MR, Fischer PW. The effects of high dietary zinc and copper deficiency on the activity of copper-requiring metalloenzymes in the growing rat. J Nutr 1984;114(5):813-822.
  • .Lai H, Lai S, Shor-Posner G, et al. Plasma zinc, copper, copper:zinc ratio, and survival in a cohort of HIV-1-infected homosexual men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001;27(1):56-62.
  • .Lammich S, Kojro E, Postina R, et al. Constitutive and regulated alpha-secretase cleavage of Alzheimer’s amyloid precursor protein by a disintegrin metalloprotease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999;96(7):3922-3927.
  • .Lask B, Fosson A, Rolfe U, et al. Zinc deficiency and childhood-onset anorexia nervosa. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:63-66.
  • .Leake A, Chrisholm GD, Busuttil A, et al. Subcellular distribution of zinc in the benign and malignant human prostate: evidence for a direct zinc androgen interaction. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1984;105(2):281-288.
  • .Leake A, Chisholm GD, Habib FK. The effect of zinc on the 5 alpha-reduction of testosterone by the hyperplastic human prostate gland. J Steroid Biochem 1984;20(2):651-655.
  • .Lee JY, Cole TB, Palmiter RD, et al. Contribution by synaptic zinc to the gender-disparate plaque formation in human Swedish mutant APP transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99(11):7705-7710.
  • .Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Wu K, et al. Zinc supplement use and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003;95(13):1004-1007.
  • .Li RC, Lo KN, Lam JS, et al. Effects of order of magnesium exposure on the postantibiotic effect and bactericidal activity of ciprofloxacin. J Chemother 1999;11(4):243-247.
  • .Liang JY, Liu YY, Zou J, et al. Inhibitory effect of zinc on human prostatic carcinoma cell growth. Prostate 1999;40(3):200-207.
  • .Licastro F, Mocchegiani E, Masi M, et al. Modulation of the neuroendocrine system and immune functions by zinc supplementation in children with Down’s syndrome. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 1993;7:237-239.
  • .Lim D, McKay M. Food-drug interactions. Drug information bulletin. UCLA Department Pharmaceut Serv 1995;15(2). (Review)
  • .Locatelli C, Torsi G. Heavy metal determination in aquatic species for food purposes. Ann Chim 2001;91(1-2):65-72.
  • .Lockitch G, Puterman M, Godolphin W, et al. Infection and immunity in Down syndrome: a trial of long-term low oral doses of zinc. J Pediatr 1989;114:781-787.
  • .Loeffel E, Koya D. Cutaneous manifestations of gastrointestinal disease. Cutis 1978;21: 852-861.
  • .Lokken PM, Halas ES, Sandstead HH. Influence of zinc deficiency on behavior. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1973;144(2):680-682.
  • .Lonnerdal B. Dietary factors influencing zinc absorption. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1378S-1383S.
  • .Lovell MA, Robertson JD, Teesdale WJ, et al. Copper, iron and zinc in Alzheimer’s disease senile plaques. J Neurol Sci 1998;158:47-52.
  • .Lowe NM, Woodhouse LR, Sutherland B, et al. Kinetic parameters and plasma zinc concentration correlate well with net loss and gain of zinc from men. J Nutr 2004;134(9):2178-2181.
  • .Lukaski HC. Magnesium, zinc, and chromium nutriture and physical activity. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72(2 Suppl):585S-593S. (Review)
  • .Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW, Klevay LM, et al. Interactions among dietary fat, mineral status, and performance of endurance athletes: a case study. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2001;11(2):186-198.
  • .Lutz G. The value of zinc in treatment of alopecia areata. Second Meeting of the European Hair Research Society. Bologna, Apr 14, 1991.
  • .Lyons TJ, Liu H, Goto JJ, et al. Mutations in copper-zinc superoxide dismutase that cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis alter the zinc binding site and the redox behavior of the protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996;93:12240-12244.
  • .MacDonald RS. The role of zinc in growth and cell proliferation. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1500S-1508S.
  • .Macknin ML. Zinc lozenges for the common cold. Cleve Clin J Med 1999;66:27-31.
  • .Macknin ML, Piedmonte M, Calendine C, et al. Zinc gluconate lozenges for treating the common cold in children: arandomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;279(24):1962-1967.
  • .Mahabir S, Spitz MR, Barrera SL, et al. Dietary zinc, copper and selenium, and risk of lung cancer. Int J Cancer 2006.Epub ahead of print.
  • .Mahajan SK, Abbasi AA, Prasad AS, et al. Effect of oral zinc therapy on gonadal function in hemodialysis patients: adouble-blind study. Ann Intern Med 1982;97:357-361.
  • .Mares-Perlman JA, Klein R, Klein BE, et al. Association of zinc and antioxidant nutrients with age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114:991-997.
  • .Maret W, Sandstead HH. Zinc requirements and the risks and benefits of zinc supplementation. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2006;20(1):3-18. (Review)
  • .Marshall S. Zinc gluconate and the common cold: review of randomized controlled trials. Can Fam Physician 1998;44:1037-1042. (Review)
  • .Martin CJ, Le XC, Guidotti TL, et al. Zinc exposure in Chinese foundry workers. Am J Ind Med 1999;35(6):574-580.
  • .Marz R. Medical nutrition from Marz. 2nded. Portland, OR: Omni Press; 1997. (Review)
  • .Mattingly PC, Mowat AG. Zinc sulphate in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1982;41:456-457.
  • .Mazariegos M, Hambidge KM, Krebs NF, et al. Zinc absorption in Guatemalan schoolchildren fed normal or low-phytate maize. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:59-64.
  • .McBride K, Slotnick B, Margolis FL. Does intranasal application of zinc sulfate produce anosmia in the mouse? An olfactometric and anatomical study. Chem Senses 2003;28(8):659-670.
  • .McCall KA, Huang C, Fierke CA. Function and mechanism of zinc metalloenzymes. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1437S-1446S. (Review)
  • .McElroy BH, Miller SP. Effectiveness of zinc gluconate glycine lozenges (Cold-Eeze) against the common cold in school-aged subjects: a retrospective chart (review).Am J Ther 2002;9:472-475.
  • .McMahon RJ, Cousins RJ. Mammalian zinc transporters. J Nutr 1998;128:667-670.
  • .McMahon RJ, Cousins RJ. Regulation of the zinc transporter ZnT-1 by dietary zinc. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998;95:4841-4846.
  • .McKenna AA, Ilich JZ, Andon MB, et al. Zinc balance in adolescent females consuming a low- or high-calcium diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65(5):1460-1464.
  • .Mellon FA, Sandstrom B, eds. Stable isotopes in human nutrition. London: Academic Press; 1996.
  • .Merchant HW, Gangarosa LP, Glassman AB, et al. Zinc sulfate supplementation for treatment of recurring oral ulcers. South Med J 1977;70(5):559-561.
  • .Meyer F, Galan P, Douville P, et al. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplementation and prostate cancer prevention in the SU.VI.MAX trial. Int J Cancer 2005;116(2):182-186.
  • .Meynadier J. Efficacy and safety study of two zinc gluconate regimens in the treatment of inflammatory acne. Eur J Dermatol 2000;10:269-273.
  • .Michaelsson G, Juhlin L, Vahlquist A. Effects of oral zinc and vitamin A in acne. Arch Dermatol 1977;113:31-36.
  • .Michaelsson G, Ljunghall K. Patients with dermatitis herpetiformis, acne, psoriasis and Darier’s disease have low epidermal zinc concentrations. Acta Derm Venereol 1990;70(4):304-308.
  • .Michaelsson G, Vahlquist A, Juhlin L. Serum zinc and retinol-binding protein in acne. Br J Dermatol 1977;96:283-286.
  • .Miller LV, Krebs NF, Hambidge KM. Development of a compartmental model of human zinc metabolism: identifiability and multiple studies analyses. Am J Physiol Regul Integrative Comp Physiol 2000;279:R1681-R1684.
  • .Mills CF, ed. Zinc in human biology. London: Springer-Verlag; 1989.
  • .Milne DB, Canfield WK, Mahalko JR, et al. Effect of oral folic acid supplements on zinc, copper, and iron absorption and excretion. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;39(4):535-539.
  • .Milne DB, Ralston NV, Wallwork JC. Zinc content of cellular components of blood: methods for cell separation and analysis evaluated. Clin Chem 1985;31:65-69.
  • .Milne DB, Ralston NV, Wallwork JC. Zinc content of blood cellular components and lymph node and spleen lymphocytes in severely zinc-deficient rats. J Nutr 1985;115:1073-1078.
  • .Mocchegiani E, Bertoni-Freddari C, Marcellini F, et al. Brain, aging and neurodegeneration: role of zinc ion availability. Prog Neurobiol 2005;75(6):367-390. (Review)
  • .Mocchegiani E, Giacconi R, Cipriano C, et al. Are zinc-bound metallothionein isoforms (I+II and III) involved in impaired thymulin production and thymic involution during ageing? Immun Ageing 2004;1(1):5.
  • .Mocchegiani E, Giacconi R, Muti E, et al. Zinc, immune plasticity, aging, and successful aging: role of metallothionein. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004;1019:127-134. (Review)
  • .Mocchegiani E, Giacconi R, Cipriano C, et al. Zinc-bound metallothioneins as potential biological markers of ageing. Brain Res Bull 2001;55(2):147-153. (Review)
  • .Mocchegiani E, Giacconi R, Muzzioli M, et al. Zinc, infections and immunosenescence. Mech Ageing Dev 2000;121(1-3):21-35. Erratum in Mech Ageing Dev 2001;122(3):353. (Review)
  • .Mocchegiani E, Marcellini F, Pawelec G. Nutritional zinc, oxidative stress and immunosenescence: biochemical, genetic, and lifestyle implications for healthy ageing. Biogerontology 2004;5(4):271-273.
  • .Mocchegiani E, Muzzioli M. Therapeutic application of zinc in human immunodeficiency virus against opportunistic infections. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1424S-31S. (Review)
  • .Mocchegiani E, Muzzioli M, Giacconi R. Zinc and immunoresistance to infection in aging: new biological tools. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2000;21(6):205-208. (Review)
  • .Mocchegiani E, Rivabene R, Santini MT. Benefit of oral zinc supplementation as an adjunct to zidovudine (AZT) therapy against opportunistic infections in AIDS. Int J Immunopharmacol 1995;17:719-727.
  • .Moroni F, Di Paolo ML, Rigo A, et al. Interrelationship among neutrophil efficiency, inflammation, antioxidant activity and zinc pool in very old age. Biogerontology 2005;6(4):271-281.
  • .Mossad SB. Effect of zincum gluconicum nasal gel on the duration and symptom severity of the common cold in otherwise healthy adults. QJM 2003;96(1):35-43.
  • .Mossad SB, Macknin ML, Medendorp SV, et al. Zinc gluconate lozenges for treating the common cold. Ann Int Med 1996;125(2):81-88.
  • .Mukherjee MD, Sandstead HH, Ratnaparkhi MV, et al. Maternal zinc, iron, folic acid, and protein nutriture and outcome of human pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40(3):496-507.
  • .Mulder TP, van der Sluys Veer A, Verspaget HW, et al. Effect of oral zinc supplementation on metallothionein and superoxide dismutase concentrations in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1994;9:472-477.
  • .Muller O, Becher H, van Zweeden AB, et al. Effect of zinc supplementation on malaria and other causes of morbidity in west African children: randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2001;322(7302):1567.
  • .Muñoz EC, Rosado JL, Lopez P, et al. Iron and zinc supplementation improves indicators of vitamin A status of Mexican preschoolers. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:789-794.
  • .Nakamura T, Higashi A, Nishiyama S. Kinetics of zinc status in children with IDDM. Diabetes Care 1991;14(7):553-557.
  • .Navert B, Sandstrom B, Cederblad A. Reduction of the phytate content of bran by leavening in bread and its effect on zinc absorption in man. Br J Nutr 1985;53:47-53.
  • .Neal DE Jr, Kaack MB, Fussell EN, et al. Changes in seminal fluid zinc during experimental prostatitis. Urol Res 1993;21:71-74.
  • .Netter A, Hartoma R, Nahoul K. Effect of zinc administration on plasma testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and sperm count. Arch Androl 1981;7(1):69-73.
  • .Neve J, Hanocq M, Peretz A, et al Pharmacokinetic study of orally administered zinc in humans: evidence for an enteral recirculation. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 1991;16(4):315-323.
  • .Newhouse IJ, Clement DB, Lai C. Effects of iron supplementation and discontinuation on serum copper, zinc, calcium, and magnesium levels in women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993;25(5):562-571.
  • .Newsome DA, Swartz M, Leone NC, et al. Oral zinc in macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 1988;106(2):192-198.
  • .Nibuya M, Morinobu S, Duman RS. Regulation of BDNF and trkB mRNA in rat brain by chronic electroconvulsive seizure and antidepressant drug treatments. J Neurosci 1995;15(11):7539-7547.
  • .Nishiyama S, Irisa K, Matsubasa T, et al. Zinc status relates to hematological deficits in middle-aged women. J Am Coll Nutr 1998;17:291-295.
  • .Nordstrom J. Trace mineral nutrition in the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;36:788-795.
  • .Norregaard L, Frederiksen D, Nielsen EO, et al. Delineation of an endogenous zinc binding site in the human dopamine transporter. EMBO J 1998;17:4266-4273.
  • .Nowak G. Does interaction between zinc and glutamate system play a significant role in the mechanism of antidepressant action? Acta Pol Pharm 2001;58(1):73-75. (Review)
  • .Nowak G, Kubera M, Maes M. Neuroimmunological aspects of the alterations in zinc homeostasis in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression. Acta Neuropsychiatr2000;12:49-53.
  • .Nowak G, Legutko B, Szewczyk B, et al. Zinc treatment induces cortical brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene expression. Eur J Pharmacol 2004;492(1):57-59.
  • .Nowak G, Szewczyk B. Mechanisms contributing to antidepressant zinc actions. Pol J Pharmacol 2002;54(6):587-592. (Review)
  • .Nowak G, Szewczyk B, Pilc A. Zinc and depression: an update. Pharmacol Rep 2005;57(6):713-718.
  • .Nowak G, Szewczyk B, Wieronska JM, et al. Antidepressant-like effects of acute and chronic treatment with zinc in forced swim test and olfactory bulbectomy model in rats. Brain Res Bull 2003;61(2):159-164.
  • .Nowak G, Zieba A, Dudek D, et al. [Zinc homeostasis and glutamatergic system in the pathogenesis and treatment of depression.] Psychiatr Pol 2001;35(2):257-266. [Polish] (Review)
  • .O’Dell BL. Role of zinc in plasma membrane function. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1432S-1436S.
  • .Ochi K, Kinoshita H, Kenmochi M, et al. Zinc deficiency and tinnitus. Auris Nasus Larynx 2003;30(Suppl):25-28.
  • .Odeh M. The role of zinc in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Intern Med 1992;231:463-469. (Review)
  • .Orris L, Shalita AR, Sibulkin D, et al. Oral zinc therapy of acne: absorption and clinical effect. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:1018-1020.
  • .Osendarp SJ, van Raaij JM, Arifeen SE, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the effect of zinc supplementation during pregnancy on pregnancy outcome in Bangladeshi urban poor. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(1):114-119.
  • .Paaske PB, Pederson CB, Kjems G, et al. Zinc therapy of tinnitus: aplacebo-controlled study. Ugeskr Laeger 1990;152:2473-2475. [Danish; English abstract]
  • .Pandey SI, Bhattacharya SK, Sundar S. Zinc in rheumatoid arthritis. Indian J Med Res 1985;81:618-620.
  • .Partida-Hernandez G, Arreola F, Fenton B, et al. Effect of zinc replacement on lipids and lipoproteins in type 2-diabetic patients. Biomed Pharmacother 2006;60(4):161-168.
  • .Peretz A, Cantinieaux B, Neve J, et al. Effects of zinc supplementation on the phagocytic functions of polymorphonuclears in patients with inflammatory rheumatic diseases. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 1994;8(3-4):189-194.
  • .Peretz A, Neve J, Jeghers O, et al. Zinc distribution in blood components, inflammatory status, and clinical indexes of disease activity during zinc supplementation in inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:690-694.
  • .Petrus EJ, Lawson KA, Bucci LR, et al. Randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled clinical study of the effectiveness of zinc acetate lozenges on common cold symptoms in allergy-tested subjects. Curr Ther Res 1998;59:595-607.
  • .Pfeiffer C. Mental and elemental nutrients. New Canaan, CT: Keats Pub; 1975.
  • .Pidduck HG, Wren PJ, Evans DA. Plasma zinc and copper in diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 1970;19(4):234-239.
  • .Pinna K, Woodhouse LR, Sutherland B, et al. Exchangeable zinc pool masses and turnover are maintained in healthy men with low zinc intakes. J Nutr 2001;131(9):2288-2294.
  • .Pohit J, Saha KC, Pal B. Zinc status of acne vulgaris patients. J Appl Nutr 1985;37:18-25.
  • .Powanda MC. Host metabolic alterations during inflammatory stress as related to nutritional status. Am J Vet Res 1980;41:1905-1911.
  • .Prasad A. Discovery of human zinc deficiency and studies in an experimental human model. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:403-412. (Review)
  • .Prasad AS. Zinc in growth and development and spectrum of human zinc deficiency. J Am Coll Nutr 1988;7:377-384. (Review)
  • .Prasad AS. Role of zinc in human health. Bol Asoc Med P R 1991;83:558-560.
  • .Prasad AS. Zinc deficiency in humans: a neglected problem. J Am Coll Nutr 1998;17(6):542-543.
  • .Prasad AS, Fitzgerald JT, Bao B, et al. Duration of symptoms and plasma cytokine levels in patients with the common cold treated with zinc acetate: arandomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2000;133(4):245-252.
  • .Prasad AS, Halsted JA, Nadimi M. Syndrome of iron deficiency anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, hypogonadism, dwarfism, and geophagia. Am J Med 1961;31:532-546.
  • .Pullen FW II, Pories WJ, Strain WH. Delayed healing: the rationale for zinc therapy. Laryngoscope 1971;81(10):1638-1649.
  • .Rahman MJ, Sarker P, Roy SK, et al. Effects of zinc supplementation as adjunct therapy on the systemic immune responses in shigellosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81(2):495-502.
  • .Rahman MM, Wahed MA, Fuchs GJ, et al. Synergistic effect of zinc and vitamin A on the biochemical indexes of vitamin A nutrition in children. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75(1):92-98.
  • .Rasker JJ, Kardaun SH. Lack of beneficial effect of zinc sulphate in rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 1982;11:168-170.
  • .Rauscher AM, Fairweather-Tait SJ, Wilson PD, et al. Zinc metabolism in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. J Trace Elem Med Biol 1997;11:65-70.
  • .Relea P, Revilla M, Ripoll E, et al. Zinc, biochemical markers of nutrition, and type-I osteoporosis. Age Ageing 1995;24:303-307.
  • .Reunanen A, Knekt P, Marniemi J, et al. Serum calcium, magnesium, copper and zinc and risk of cardiovascular death. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996;50(7):431-437.
  • .Rink L, Gabriel P. Zinc and the immune system. Proc Nutr Soc 2000;59(4):541-552. (Review)
  • .Rink L, Gabriel P. Extracellular and immunological actions of zinc. Biometals 2001;14(3-4):367-383. (Review)
  • .Riordan JF. Biochemistry of zinc. Med Clin North Am 1976;60(4):661-674.
  • .Ripamonti C, Zecca E, Brunelli C, et al. A randomized, controlled clinical trial to evaluate the effects of zinc sulfate on cancer patients with taste alterations caused by head and neck irradiation. Cancer 1998;82:1938-1945.
  • .Robinson C, Weigly E. Basic nutrition and diet therapy. New York: Macmillan; 1984.
  • .Rodger RS, Sheldon WL, Watson MJ, et al. Zinc deficiency and hyperprolactinaemia are not reversible causes of sexual dysfunction in uraemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1989;4:888-892.
  • .Rogers SA. Zinc deficiency as a model for developing chemical sensitivity. Int Clin Nutr Rev 1990;10:253-258.
  • .Roe DA. Drug-induced nutritional deficiencies. 2nd ed. Westport, CT: Avi Publishing; 1985. (Review)
  • .Roe DA. Essential hyperlipemia with xanthomatosis: effects of cholestyramine and clofibrate. Arch Dermatol 1968;97(4):436-445.
  • .Roe DA. Risk factors in drug-induced nutritional deficiencies. In: Roe DA, Campbell T, eds. Drugs and nutrients: the interactive effects. New York: Marcel Decker; 1984:505-523. (Review)
  • .Roijen SB, Worsaae U, Zlotnik G. Zinc in patients with anorexia nervosa. Ugeskr Laeger 1991;153:721-723. [Danish; English abstract]
  • .Ruz M, Cavan KR, Bettger WJ, et al. Development of a dietary model for the study of mild zinc deficiency in humans and evaluation of some biochemical and functional indices of zinc status. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53(5):1295-1303.
  • .Ruz M, Cavan KR, Bettger WJ, et al. Indices of iron and copper status during experimentally induced, marginal zinc deficiency in humans. Biol Trace Elem Res 1992;34(2):197-212.
  • .Ruz M, Cavan KR, Bettger WJ, et al. Erythrocytes, erythrocyte membranes, neutrophils and platelets as biopsy materials for the assessment of zinc status in humans. Br J Nutr 1992;68:515-527.
  • .Safai-Kutti S. Oral zinc supplementation in anorexia nervosa. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1990;361:14-17.
  • .Salgueiro MJ, Zubillaga M, Lysionek A, et al. Zinc status and immune system relationship: a review. Biol Trace Elem Res 2000;76(3):193-205.
  • .Saltman PD, Strause LG. The role of trace minerals in osteoporosis. J Am Coll Nutr 1993;12(4):384-389.
  • .Sandstead HH. Assessment of zinc nutriture. J Lab Clin Med 1991;118(4):299-300.
  • .Sandstead HH. Causes of iron and zinc deficiencies and their effects on brain. J Nutr 2000;130(2S Suppl):347S-349S. (Review)
  • .Sandstead HH. Copper bioavailability and requirements. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;35(4):809-814. (Review)
  • .Sandstead HH. Is zinc deficiency a public health problem? Nutrition 1995;11(1 Suppl):87-92. (Review)
  • .Sandstead HH. Requirements and toxicity of essential trace elements, illustrated by zinc and copper. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61(3 Suppl):621S-624S. (Review)
  • .Sandstead HH. Zinc as an unrecognized limiting nutrient. Am J Clin Nutr 1973;26(8):790-791.
  • .Sandstead HH. Zinc treatment of Wilson’s disease. J Lab Clin Med 1989;114(6):615-616.
  • .Sandstead HH. Zinc interference with copper metabolism. JAMA 1978;240(20):2188.
  • .Sandstead HH. Zinc nutrition in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr 1973;26(11):1251-1260. (Review)
  • .Sandstead HH, Alcock NW. Zinc: an essential and unheralded nutrient. J Lab Clin Med 1997;130(2):116-118.
  • .Sandstead HH, Dintzis FR, Bogyo TP, et al. Dietary factors that can impair calcium and zinc nutriture of the elderly. Prog Clin Biol Res 1990;326:241-262. (Review)
  • .Sandstead HH, Egger NG. Is zinc nutriture a problem in persons with diabetes mellitus? Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66(3):681-682.
  • .Sandstead HH, Frederickson CJ, Penland JG. History of zinc as related to brain function. J Nutr 2000;130(2S Suppl):496S-502S.
  • .Sandstead HH, Howard L. Zinc deficiency in Crohn’s disease. Nutr Rev 1982;40(4):109-112. (Review)
  • .Sandstead HH, Munoz JM, Jacob RA, et al. Influence of dietary fiber on trace element balance. Am J Clin Nutr 1978;31(10 Suppl):S180-S184.
  • .Sandstead HH, Penland JG, Alcock NW, et al. Effects of repletion with zinc and other micronutrients on neuropsychologic performance and growth of Chinese children. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68(2 Suppl):470S-475S.
  • .Sandstead HH, Smith JC Jr. Deliberations and evaluations of approaches, endpoints and paradigms for determining zinc dietary recommendations. J Nutr 1996;126(9 Suppl):2410S-2418S.
  • .Sandstrom B, Davidsson L, Cederblad A, et al. Oral iron, dietary ligands and zinc absorption. J Nutr 1985;115:411-414.
  • .Sandstrom B, Davidsson L, Eriksson R, et al. Effect of long-term trace element supplementation on blood trace element levels and absorption of (75Se), (54Mn) and (65Zn). J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 1990;4:65-72.
  • .Sandstrom BM. Diagnosis of zinc deficiency and excess in individuals and populations. Food Nutr Bull 2001;22:133-137.
  • .Santucci B, Cristaudo A, Mehraban M, et al. ZnSO4 treatment of NiSO4-positive patients. Contact Dermatitis 1999;40:281-282.
  • .Sazawal S, Black RE, Jalla S, et al. Zinc supplementation reduces the incidence of acute lower respiratory infections in infants and preschool children: a double-blind, controlled trial. Pediatrics 1998;102:1-5.
  • .Schauss AG. Diet, crime, and delinquency. Berkeley: Parker House; 1980.
  • .Schetz JA, Sibley DR. Zinc allosterically modulates antagonist binding to cloned D1 and D2 dopamine receptors. J Neurochem 1997;68:1990-1997.
  • .Schmidt LE, Arfken CL, Heins JM. Evaluation of nutrient intake in subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Diet Assoc 1994;94:773-774.
  • .Scholmerich J, Lohla E, Gerok W. Zinc and vitamin A deficiency in liver cirrhosis. Hepatogastroenterology 1983;30:119-25.
  • .Schrodt GR, Hall T, Whitmore WF. The concentration of zinc in diseased human prostate glands. Cancer 1964;17:1555-1566.
  • .Scott KC, Turnlund JR. A compartmental model of zinc metabolism in adult men used to study effects of three levels of dietary copper. Am J Physiol 1994;267:E165-E173.
  • .Serjeant GR, Galloway RE, Gueri MC. Oral zinc sulphate in sickle-cell ulcers. Lancet 1970;2:891-893.
  • .Shankar AH. Nutritional modulation of malaria morbidity and mortality. J Infect Dis 2000;182(Suppl 1):S37-S53.
  • .Shankar AH, Prasad AS. Zinc and immune function: the biological basis of altered resistance to infection. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:447S-463S. (Review)
  • .Siklar Z, Tuna C, Dallar Y, et al. Zinc deficiency: a contributing factor of short stature in growth hormone deficient children. J Trop Pediatr 2003;49(3):187-188.
  • .Simkin PA. Oral zinc sulphate in rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 1976;2(7985):539-542.
  • .Simkin PA. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with oral zinc sulfate. Agents Actions 1981;8(Suppl):587-595.
  • .Siwek MS, Wrobel A, Dudek D, et al. [The role of zinc in the pathogenesis and treatment of affective disorders.] Psychiatr Pol 2005;39(5):899-909. [Polish] (Review)
  • .Sjogren A, Floren CH, Nilsson A. Evaluation of zinc status in subjects with Crohn’s disease. J Am Coll Nutr 1988;7:57-60.
  • .Smith W, Mitchell P, Webb K, et al. Dietary antioxidants and age-related maculopathy: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 1999;106(4):761-767.
  • .Solomons NW. Dietary sources of zinc and factors affecting its bioavailability. Food Nutr Bull 2001;22:138-154.
  • .Solomons NW, Pineda O, Viteri F, et al. Studies on the bioavailability of zinc in humans: mechanism of the intestinal interaction of nonheme iron and zinc. J Nutr 1983;113(2):337-349.
  • .Spencer H, Norris C, Osis D. Further studies of the effect of zinc on intestinal absorption of calcium in man. J Am Coll Nutr 1992;11:561-566.
  • .Sprietsma JE. Modern diets and diseases: NO-zinc balance: under Th1, zinc and nitrogen monoxide (NO) collectively protect against viruses, AIDS, autoimmunity, diabetes, allergies, asthma, infectious diseases, atherosclerosis and cancer. Med Hypotheses 1999;53(1):6-16. (Review)
  • .Sprietsma JE. Cysteine, glutathione (GSH) and zinc and copper ions together are effective, natural, intracellular inhibitors of (AIDS) viruses. Med Hypotheses 1999;52(6):529-538. (Review)
  • .Stabile A, Pesaresi MA, Stabile AM, et al. Immunodeficiency and plasma zinc levels in children with Down’s syndrome: a long-term follow-up of oral zinc supplementation. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1991;58:207-216.
  • .Stang J, Story MT, Harnack L, et al. Relationships between vitamin and mineral supplement use, dietary intake, and dietary adequacy among adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc 2000;100(8):905-910.
  • .Stockley IH. Drug interactions. 6th ed. London: Pharmaceutical Press; 2002.
  • .Strand TA, Chandyo RK, Bahl R, et al. Effectiveness and efficacy of zinc for the treatment of acute diarrhea in young children. Pediatrics 2002;109(5):898-903.
  • .Sturniolo GC, Di Leo V, Ferronato A, et al. Zinc supplementation tightens "leaky gut" in Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2001;7(2):94-98.
  • .Su JC, Birmingham CL. Zinc supplementation in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Eat Weight Disord 2002;7(1):20-22. (Review)
  • .Sugarman B. Zinc and infection. Rev Infect Dis 1983;5:137-147.
  • .Sustrova M, Strbak V. Thyroid function and plasma immunoglobulins in subjects with Down’s syndrome (DS) during ontogenesis and zinc therapy. J Endocrinol Invest 1994;17:385-390.
  • .Suzuki T, Koizumi J, Moroji T, et al. Effects of long-term anticonvulsant therapy on copper, zinc, and magnesium in hair and serum of epileptics. Biol Psychiatry 1992;31(6):571-581.
  • .Takeda A. Zinc homeostasis and functions of zinc in the brain. Biometals 2001;14(3-4):343-351. (Review)
  • .Takeda A, Minami A, Seki Y, et al. Inhibitory function of zinc against excitation of hippocampal glutamatergic neurons. Epilepsy Res 2003;57:169-174.
  • .Takihara H, Cosentino MJ, Cockett AT. Zinc sulfate therapy for infertile male with or without varicocelectomy. Urology 1987;29(6):638-641.
  • .Tasman-Jones C. Zinc deficiency states. Adv Int Med 1980;26:97-114. (Review)
  • .Taubeneck MW, Daston GP, Rogers JM, et al. Altered maternal zinc metabolism following exposure to diverse developmental toxicants. Reprod Toxicol 1994;8(1):25-40.
  • .Taylor CG, Giesbrecht JA. Dietary zinc deficiency and expression of T lymphocyte signal transduction proteins. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2000;78(10):823-828.
  • .Thomas AJ, Bunker VW, Hinks LJ. Energy, protein, zinc and copper status of 21 elderly inpatients: analysed dietary intake and biochemical indices. Br J Nutr 1988;59:181-191.
  • .Tikkiwal M, Ajmera RL, Mathur NK. Effect of zinc administration on seminal zinc and fertility of oligospermic males. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1987;31(1):30-34.
  • .Trovato A, Nuhlicek DN, Midtling JE. Drug-nutrient interactions. Am Fam Physician 1991;44(5):1651-1658. (Review)
  • .Truong-Tran AQ, Ho LH, Chai F, et al. Cellular zinc fluxes and the regulation of apoptosis/gene-directed cell death. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1459S-1466S.
  • .Tuormaa TE. Adverse effect of zinc deficiency: a review from the literature. J Orthomol Med 1995;10:149-162. (Review)
  • .Turner RB. Ineffectiveness of intranasal zinc gluconate for prevention of experimental rhinovirus colds. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33(11):1865-1870.
  • .Turner RB, Cetnarowski WE. Effect of treatment with zinc gluconate or zinc acetate on experimental and natural colds. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31(5):1202-1208.
  • .Tyrer LB. Nutrition and the pill. J Reprod Med 1984;29(7 Suppl):547-550.
  • .Umeta M, West CE, Haidar J, et al. Zinc supplementation and stunted infants in Ethiopia: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2000;355:2021-2026.
  • .USDA: Composition of foods:USDA handbook #8. Washington, DC:ARS, United States Department of Agriculture; 1976-1986.
  • .Vallee BL. Biochemistry, physiology and pathology of zinc. Physiol Rev 1959;39:443. (Review)
  • .Vallee BL, Falchuk KH. The biochemical basis of zinc physiology. Physiol Rev 1993;73:79-118.
  • .Vallee BL, Wacker WEC. Metalloproteins. In: Neurath H, ed. The proteins composition, structure and function. New York: Academy Press; 1970.
  • .Van de Wal Y, Van der Sluys Veer A, Verspaget HW, et al. Effect of zinc therapy on natural killer cell activity in inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1993;7:281-286.
  • .VandenLangenberg GM, Mares-Perlman JA, Klein R, et al. Associations between antioxidant and zinc intake and the 5-year incidence of early age-related maculopathy in the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Am J Epidemiol 1998;148(2):204-214.
  • .Vartsky D, Shilstein S, Bercovich A, et al. Prostatic zinc and prostate specific antigen: an experimental evaluation of their combined diagnostic value. J Urol 2003;170(6 Pt 1):2258-2262.
  • .Verma KC, Saini AS, Dhamija SK. Oral zinc sulfate therapy in acne vulgaris: a double-blind trial. Acta Derm Venereol 1980;60:337-340.
  • .Verrotti A, Basciani F, Trotta D, et al. Serum copper, zinc, selenium, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase levels in epileptic children before and after 1 year of sodium valproate and carbamazepine therapy. Epilepsy Res 2002;48(1-2):71-75.
  • .Vinson J, Bose P, Lemoine L, et al. Bioavailability studies. In: Southgate DAT, ed. Nutrient availability: chemical and biological aspects. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry; 1989:125-127.
  • .Vohra P, Gray GA, Kratzer FH. Phytic acid-metal complexes. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1965;120:447-449.
  • .Wallwork JC, Milne DB, Sims RL, et al. Severe zinc deficiency: effects on the distribution of nine elements (potassium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc, copper and manganese) in regions of the rat brain. J Nutr 1983;113(10):1895-1905.
  • .Walravens P. Nutritional importance of copper and zinc in neonates and infants. Clin Chem 1980;6(2):185-189. (Review)
  • .Walravens PA, Hambidge KM, Koepfer DM. Zinc supplementation in infants with a nutritional pattern of failure to thrive: a double-blind, controlled study. Pediatrics 1989;83(4):532-538.
  • .Wapnir RA. Zinc deficiency, malnutrition and the gastrointestinal tract. J Nutr 2000;130(5S Suppl):1388S-1392S.
  • .Ward NI. Assessment of zinc status and oral supplementation in anorexia nervosa. J Nutr Med 1990;1:171-177.
  • .Webb JL. Nutritional effects of oral contraceptive use: a review. J Reprod Med 1980;25:150-156.
  • .Weimar V,Puhl S, Smith W, et al. Zinc sulphate in acne vulgaris. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:1776-1778.
  • .Weismann K. Lines of Beau: possible markers of zinc deficiency. Acta Dermatol Venereol 1977;57:88.
  • .Weismann K, Jakobsen JP, Weismann JE, et al. Zinc gluconate lozenges for common cold: adouble-blind clinical trial. Dan Med Bull 1990;37(3):279-281.
  • .Weismann K, Wadskov S, Sondergaard J. Oral zinc sulphate therapy for acne vulgaris. Acta Derm Venereol 1977;57:357-360.
  • .Wellinghausen N, Kern WV, Jochle W, et al. Zinc serum level in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in relation to immunological status. Biol Trace Elem Res 2000;73(2):139-149.
  • .Werbach MR. Foundations of nutritional medicine. Tarzana, CA: Third Line Press; 1997. (Review)
  • .Wilkinson EA, Hawke CI. Oral zinc for arterial and venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;(2):CD001273. (Review)
  • .Witte KKA, Nikitin NP, Parker AC, et al. The effect of micronutrient supplementation on quality-of-life and left ventricular function in elderly patients with chronic heart failure. Eur Heart J 2005;26:2238-2244.
  • .Wollowa F, Jablonska S. Zinc in the treatment of alopecia areata. In: Kobori Y, Montagna W,eds. Biology and diseases of the hair. Tokyo: University Park Press;1976:305.
  • .Wong WY, Merkus HM, Thomas CM, et al. Effects of folic acid and zinc sulfate on male factor subfertility: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Fertil Steril 2002;77(3):491-498.
  • .Wood RJ, Zheng JJ. High dietary calcium intakes reduce zinc absorption and balance in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65(6):1803-1809.
  • .Wu X, Itoh N, Taniguchi T, et al. Zinc-induced sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 2 expression: potent roles in osteoblast differentiation. Arch Biochem Biophys 2003;420(1):114-120.
  • .Wynn V. Vitamins and oral contraceptive use. Lancet 1975;1(7906):561-564.
  • .Yadrick MK, Kenney MA, Winterfeldt EA. Iron, copper, and zinc status: response to supplementation with zinc or zinc and iron in adult females. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:145-150.
  • .Yergey AL. Analytical instruments for stable isotopic tracers in mineral metabolism. J Nutr 1996;126(1):355S-361S.
  • .Yokoi K, Alcock NW, Sandstead HH. Iron and zinc nutriture of premenopausal women: associations of diet with serum ferritin and plasma zinc disappearance and of serum ferritin with plasma zinc and plasma zinc disappearance. J Lab Clin Med 1994;124(6):852-861. Erratum in J Lab Clin Med 1995;125(6):681.
  • .Yokoi K, Egger NG, Ramanujam VM, et al. Association between plasma zinc concentration and zinc kinetic parameters in premenopausal women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2003;285(5):E1010-1020.
  • .Yokoi K, Egger N, Ramanujam VMS, et al. Associations between iron and zinc nutriture in premenopausal women. FASEB J 2003;17(415).
  • .Yokoi K, Egger NG, Ramanujam VM, et al. Association between plasma zinc concentration and zinc kinetic parameters in premenopausal women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2003;285(5):E1010-E1020.
  • .Young B, Ott L, Kasarkis E, et al. Zinc supplementation is associated with improved neurologic recovery rate and visceral protein levels of patients with severe closed head injury. J Neurotrauma 1996;13:25-34.
  • .Zago MP, Oteiza PI. The antioxidant properties of zinc: interactions with iron and antioxidants. Free Radic Biol Med 2001;31(2):266-274.
  • .Zemel BS, Kawchak DA, Fung EB, et al. Effect of zinc supplementation on growth and body composition in children with sickle cell disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:300-307.
  • .Zhou JR, Erdman JW Jr. Phytic acid in health and disease. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1995;35(6):495-508. (Review)
  • .Zimmermann MB, Molinari L, Staubli-Asobayire F, et al. Serum transferrin receptor and zinc protoporphyrin as indicators of iron status in African children. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:615-623.