InteractionsGuide Index Page

 
Case Analysis Toolclose
Enter Each Substance:


Analysis Search Terms:

Calcium

Nutrient Name: Calcium.
Synonyms: Calcium ascorbate, calcium aspartate, calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, calcium gluconate, calcium lactate.
Elemental Symbol: Ca.
Related Substance: Microcrystalline hydroxyapatite (MCHC)

Summary Table
nutrient description

Chemistry and Forms

Calcium ascorbate, calcium aspartate, calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, calcium citrate-malate (citramate), calcium gluconate, calcium lactate, calcium malate; microcrystalline hydroxyapatite (MCHC); calcium acetate; bonemeal, dolomite; calcium glycerophosphate, dicalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate; calcium phosphate (dairy calcium).

Physiology and Function

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body, with 99% of it stored in bone and teeth. The remaining 1% of body calcium is found in the blood, extracellular fluid (ECF), and soft tissue. Normal physiological functioning requires that homeostatic systems in the intestines, bones, and kidneys, in concert with parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, vitamin D, and other hormones, maintain calcium levels in the blood and ECF within very narrow concentration parameters. Calcium absorption in the intestines will increase if blood levels decrease. Likewise, renal excretion can be reduced to maintain calcium levels. Ultimately, however, bone will be demineralized to maintain normal calcium parameters when intake is inadequate to sustain the physiological functions of calcium in bone and teeth, cellular structure, endocrine function, cell signaling, nerve transmission, blood clotting, blood pressure regulation, enzyme activation, and muscle contraction.

A dynamic and complex system involving calcium absorption, bone formation and resorption, renal reabsorption and excretion, and hormonal regulatory networks enables rapid and tight control of blood calcium levels. Calcium is absorbed in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum by an active saturable process that involves vitamin D and PTH. Calcium exhibits threshold absorption that depends on the interplay among dietary intake, blood and tissue levels, gender, life stage and activity level, gastric pH, hormonal milieu, vitamin D receptor genotype, and numerous other factors. Except for dietary intake, the major factors influencing the efficiency of absorption are physiological requirements and age. Thus, in childhood, adolescence, pregnancy, and lactation, the intestinal calcium absorption process becomes more efficient; conversely, it is impaired in the elderly, especially with decreased physical activity levels. Calcium bioavailability depends to some extent on vitamin D status. PTH stimulates the conversion of vitamin D to calcitriol, its active form, primarily in the kidneys and to some degree in other tissues. Calcitriol increases the absorption of calcium from the small intestine. At high intakes, some calcium is absorbed by passive diffusion (independent of vitamin D). Some absorption can also occur from the colon. Together with PTH, calcitriol activates osteoclasts to stimulate the release of calcium from bone and increases renal tubular reabsorption to reduce excretion of calcium through the urine. On reaching normal blood calcium levels, the parathyroid glands suspend PTH secretion, and the kidneys resume excretion of any excess calcium through the urine. Unabsorbed and endogenously secreted calcium is eliminated through the feces. Perspiration and breast milk also act as pathways of calcium excretion.

Calcium ions play a major role in the structural aspect of physiology. Hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], a crystalline calcium carbonate/calcium phosphate compound, is the form of calcium primarily responsible for providing rigidity and strength to bones and teeth. Positive calcium balance is maintained during development and growth until peak bone density is attained, becomes neutral as adults mature, and is often negative in the elderly. Thus, bone density increases during the first three decades of life until it reaches its peak at about age 30. Thereafter, bone density stabilizes before moving into a pattern of gradual decline. Both men and women experience diminishing bone density as they age, but women experience more significant and rapid decline after menopause. Calcium and vitamin D insufficiency during adolescence and young adulthood can significantly curtail peak bone density, dramatically increasing the risk of osteoporosis in later life.

Calcium facilitates muscle activity by aiding transport across cell membranes. Muscles require calcium for proper contractile function. Without calcium, the muscles tend to stay in the contracted state. The cell membranes of skeletal muscle cells, nerve cells, and other electrically excitable cells are characterized by voltage-dependent calcium channels that enable rapid changes in calcium concentrations. For example, the nerve impulse entering a muscle fiber to stimulate contraction triggers calcium channels in the cell membrane to allow influx of calcium ions into the muscle cell. Calcium ions are released from intracellular storage vesicles as these calcium ions bind to troponin- c and set in motion the process of muscle contraction. Meanwhile, the binding of calcium to calmodulin activates glycogenolysis in the muscle to provide energy necessary for contraction.

As with striated muscle throughout the body, the heart requires calcium for proper contractility. A sudden decrease of ionized serum calcium can cause tetany, leading to cardiac or respiratory failure. Likewise, calcium plays a role in mediating the constriction and relaxation of blood vessels (vasoconstriction and vasodilation).

An array of proteins and enzymes require calcium as a cofactor for optimal activity and stabilization. For example, activation of seven of the clotting factors in the coagulation cascade requires the binding of calcium ions. Ionized calcium initiates the formation of blood clotting by stimulating the release of thromboplastin from blood platelets. It is also a cofactor in the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, which converts fibrinogen to fibrin, and then aids in its polymerization to form a stable clot.

Calcium also regulates membrane stabilization. Certain cells (e.g., mast cells) tend to rupture when calcium ions are depleted. In addition, neurotransmitters at synaptic junctions are regulated by calcium. This may have effects on such conditions such as anxiety, insomnia, and other stress-related conditions.

nutrient in clinical practice

Known or Potential Therapeutic Uses

Calcium plays many essential roles in human physiology, but it primarily receives attention in conventional medicine and patient inquiries in regard to bone health, aging, and osteoporosis. Nevertheless, calcium has a proven influence on risk for numerous pathological patterns and needs to be emphasized as a critical nutrient beginning at an early age. Calcium intake during childhood and especially during adolescence is perhaps the most significant factor in establishing healthy bone mass and preventing osteoporosis, although exercise is an equally and possibly more important factor. 1 Calcium too often becomes a concern as aging progresses and the threat of bone loss is looming or initial signs of osteoporosis are already present. Unfortunately, when awareness of need develops during middle age and menopause, it is usually too late for optimal calcium nutriture to function in a preventive mode. 2-5

Evidence for beneficial effects of calcium supplementation on bone mineral density (BMD), most often studied in women before and after menopause, is mixed, with slowing the pace of further bone loss becoming the realistic clinical objective in most cases. Inherently, the significance of variables such as calcium intake, beverage habits, hormone history and status, and lifestyle factors (e.g., exercise, smoking) all complicate the issues and confound analysis of the available data. 6,7Thus, although the current dietary and calcium supplementation recommendations are almost always advisable, they are unlikely to reverse the process of age-related bone loss without a comprehensive and strategic approach utilizing multidisciplinary interventions.

The collective evidence indicates that a diet rich in calcium from plant sources deserves much more attention, and that the common advice to consume dairy products may be less well founded than generally presumed. Furthermore, the tendency of adolescents to displace milk consumption with carbonated beverages during the most critical life stage for peak bone mass development tips the calcium balance in a deleterious direction, given the calcium-depleting action of phosphates found in many soft drinks, as well as drawing on the skeletal mineral reserve to buffer the acid load imposed by habitual consumption of large quantities of these acidified carbonated drinks. Experts in clinical nutrition generally recommend that individuals obtain as much calcium as possible from a diverse, notrient-rich, and balanced diet. Foods that provide calcium usually contain other important nutrients, such as magnesium, manganese, copper, zinc, vitamin D, and vitamin K, that work synergistically with calcium. Moreover, intake of calcium levels above 800 mg (elemental calcium) per day is probably unnecessary for maintaining calcium metabolism in most individuals, provided that vitamin D status is adequate, except for pregnancy and lactation. 8

Calcium absorption is variable, both between different individuals and also with differing forms of calcium. Individuals of Asian and African heritage absorb calcium more efficiently than do Caucasians. 9 Different forms of calcium are absorbed at different rates. The pH of the stomach often influences how well certain calcium salts will be absorbed. The more water-soluble forms of calcium, such as citrate and citrate-malate, tend to have a greater absorption rate, especially in people who are deficient in hydrochloric acid, such as the elderly, or those taking gastric acid–suppressive medications. Furthermore, vitamin D intake and blood levels, as well as vitamin D receptor genotype, can significantly influence calcium bioavailability and absorption. 10 Bran and high-fiber cereals are high in phytates, which can reduce calcium absorption, although this is probably not clinically significant for most individuals over time at typical levels of consumption.

Historical/Ethnomedicine Precedent

Dark-green leafy vegetables, hard cheeses, sesame seeds, seaweed, and other components of traditional indigenous diets have long been emphasized for their contributions to health and longevity. Dairy consumption has been part of some cultural traditions for long periods, although controversy continues as to whether it is always in association with a genetic capacity to digest, assimilate, and metabolize dairy foods.

Possible Uses

Amenorrhea (bone loss prevention), anxiety, arthritis, blood clotting, blood pressure regulation, cardiovascular disease, celiac disease (related deficiency), colon cancer (risk reduction), colorectal cancer, depression, dysmenorrhea, gestational hypertension, gingivitis, hyperactivity, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, hypoparathyroidism, insomnia, insulin resistance syndrome, kidney stones (calcium oxalate stone prevention), migraine, multiple sclerosis, obesity, osteoporosis, periodontal disease, postpartum support, preeclampsia (related deficiency), pregnancy support, premenstrual syndrome, restless legs syndrome, rickets, stroke.

Related Therapeutic Applications

Calcium carbonate is used as an antacid. Calcium carbonate and calcium acetate can be used as phosphate binders in renal failure. Calcium chloride and calcium gluconate are used intravenously in treating severe hypocalcemia.

Deficiency Symptoms

Simple calcium deficiency is not a recognized clinical disorder, and standard laboratory tests, except bone scans during middle age, offer little useful data to evaluate calcium status for individuals with suboptimal or even moderately compromised intake, development, and peak bone mass. Long-term calcium deficiency contributes to growth deficiency in children; poor tooth development is also characteristic. A lack of calcium in adults may cause osteoporosis and osteomalacia and result in bone deformities, bone pain, and fractures. Other symptoms related to a deficiency are tetany or other muscle spasms. These usually occur in the legs. However, they may also occur in the blood vessels and may lead to hypertension. Other, typically more advanced, symptoms of calcium deficiency include nausea and vomiting, headaches, candidiasis, dry skin and nails, alopecia, neuromuscular irritability, muscular spasms and contracture, tetany, arrhythmias, convulsions, anxiety, depression, insomnia, and psychosis.

Calcium insufficiency, depletion, and deficiency can result from a wide range of factors and are usually gradual in onset and difficult to reverse once established. Decreased intake, inadequate weight-bearing exercise, blood loss (both internal and external), menorrhagia, lead toxicity, and malabsorption all can lead to calcium deficiency. Deficiencies in vitamin D and magnesium can contribute to calcium deficiency. A growing body of evidence indicates that vitamin D status is compromised in a large portion of the population, particularly adolescents and the elderly, because of inadequate intake and lack of exposure to sufficient sunlight. Magnesium deficiency results in decreased responsiveness of osteoclasts to PTH. Compromised calcium status during development will prevent the attainment of optimal peak bone mass. Once that opportune phase is passed, inadequate calcium intake may contribute to accelerated bone loss and ultimately the development of osteoporosis.

However, increased absorption of dietary calcium, rather than an increased intake or decreased excretion of calcium, appears to be the most influential factor in rapid acquisition of bone mineral during pubertal growth. Thus, the effects of dietary factors on calcium absorption efficiency are modulated by calcium status, genetic factors (e.g., specific vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms), and height and body size. 10-14Furthermore, malabsorption conditions (e.g., Crohn's disease, celiac disease, surgical intestinal resection), prolonged bed rest, excessive menstrual blood loss, and a range of pathologies and medical interventions can also contribute to calcium depletion and potential deficiency.

Dietary Sources

  • Hard cheese, almonds, sesame seeds, filberts, and dark-green leafy vegetables are considered high in calcium, with greater than 200 mg/100 g food.
  • Milk, yogurt, sunflower seeds, Brazil nuts, broccoli, parsley, and watercress are considered medium in calcium, with greater than 100 mg/100 g food.

Average dietary intakes of calcium in the United States (U.S.) are well below the adequate intake (AI) recommendation for every age and gender group, especially in females and most significantly in children 9 to 17 years old. Furthermore, surveys consistently find that up to 85% of postmenopausal women do not consume adequate calcium every day, and on average consume about 500 mg less than the U.S. recommended dietary allowance (RDA). “Despite increasing public awareness and patient education about the importance of calcium [intake], this analysis shows the average daily calcium intake has not improved since the landmark Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF),” conducted from 1986 to 1988, which found that postmenopausal women's average daily calcium intake was 714 mg daily. 15

The issue of calcium bioavailability from milk and dairy products remains a contentious issue, more often dominated by cultural habit and marketing than by nutritional science. In a systematic review of 58 clinical, longitudinal, retrospective, and cross-sectional studies on the relationship between milk, dairy products, or calcium intake and bone mineralization or fracture risk in children and young adults (1-25 years old), Lanou et al. 16 concluded: “Scant evidence supports nutrition guidelines focused specifically on increasing milk or other dairy product intake for promoting child and adolescent bone mineralization.” Furthermore, large segments of the populations may not have the genetic background for digestion and assimilation of cow's milk, or any milk, past infancy, with resulting food intolerances, lactase deficiency, and food allergies being increasingly recognized for their clinical import.

Consumption of cola-containing drinks, but not other carbonated beverages, appears to be associated with lower BMD in older women. 17

Nutrient Preparations Available

The issue of which form of supplemental calcium is “best” belies the broader issues of biochemical individuality in general and gastrointestinal function in particular. Organically bound calcium, such as aspartate, citrate, gluconate, or chelated forms, generally demonstrates higher bioavailability than inorganic calcium, such as carbonate, phosphate, or sulfate; such bioavailability is particularly significant in individuals with insufficient gastric acid or poor bowel constitution and in the elderly. Calcium carbonate is the least expensive and most well-known form of calcium, but it frequently causes constipation and bloating and may not be well absorbed by individuals with reduced levels of stomach acid. 18 When calcium carbonate is taken with orange or other citrus juice, a significant amount of calcium citrate is formed, and absorption appears to be enhanced, even in subjects with low gastric acidity. Calcium citrate and heated oyster shell–seaweed calcium may be better absorbed than calcium carbonate; other evidence indicates no significant difference in bioavailability. Studies have shown a normally functioning bowel can ionize calcium carbonate and the lumen can absorb it well; after it is absorbed, it can be converted to aspartate, then an orotate, so that it can be absorbed into the cells. 19-21

Calcium lactate and calcium gluconate are also more efficiently absorbed than calcium carbonate. Calcium citrate-appears to be better tolerated in the elderly and by those with sensitive digestive systems and may offer superior efficacy in preventing the progression of osteoporosis. Calcium citrate-malate (citramate) is absorbed better and tolerated more consistently than calcium carbonate. 22 Many physicians and other health care professionals experienced in nutritional therapy have increasingly turned to calcium citramate as their preferred form of calcium. Some evidence suggests efficacy of microcrystalline hydroxyapatite (MCHC) in cases where osteoporosis is the greatest concern. This form of calcium is purported to have a special affinity for bone formation, but some have asserted that it may not be absorbed well.

Dosage Forms Available

Capsule, chewable tablet, functional foods (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium citrate), liposomal spray, liquid, powder, tablet; injection (prescription only).

Source Materials for Nutrient Preparations

Oyster shells (calcium carbonate), dolomite, bonemeal (calcium hydroxyapatite); calcium ascorbate, calcium aspartate, calcium citrate, calcium citrate-malate, calcium gluconate, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium lactate, calcium malate, dicalcium phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate are calcium salts of the corresponding organic acid, produced by titrating the acid with calcium hydroxide or other basic form. Soluble forms of calcium phosphate along with other minerals present in milk have been extracted from milk and are being used to fortify other foodstuffs.

Most calcium supplements (85%) currently sold in the U.S. are made from calcium carbonate, which contains the greatest percentage of elemental calcium on a weight basis, but is also the least water-soluble calcium salt.

  • Note:   Lead contamination has been observed in some forms of supplemental calcium, particularly dolomite, bonemeal, and oyster shell. 23-25The U.S. federal limit for lead content is 7.5 micrograms (µg) per 1000 milligrams (mg) elemental calcium. Good manufacturing practice has established an industry standard of keeping the amount of lead in calcium supplements to less than 0.5 µg/1000 mg elemental calcium. A product survey published in 2000 reported measurable lead in 8 of 21 supplements, in amounts averaging 1 to 2 µg/1000 mg elemental calcium. 26 Calcium inhibits intestinal absorption of lead, and adequate calcium intake is protective against lead toxicity. Consequently, calcium deficiency could potentially present a greater risk of lead intake due to general lead exposure than associated with trace amounts in calcium supplements.

Dosage Range

No multivitamin/multimineral capsule or tablet contains 100% of the recommended daily dose of calcium because it would be too bulky and too large to swallow. For example, 1 g calcium carbonate contains 400 mg elemental calcium and 1 g calcium citrate contains 211 mg elemental calcium. Furthermore, because calcium exhibits an absorption threshold, absorption is maximized by limiting each dose to 500 mg elemental calcium. 27 Thus, supplemental calcium intake is most efficacious when the daily intake is divided into two or more doses, preferably with meals (and away from most medications). Concomitant vitamin D will enhance calcium absorption.

Adult

Dietary: In the United Kingdom, the average daily diet provides 961 mg for men and 764 mg for women.

Supplemental/Maintenance: 500 to 2500 mg per day.

  • For individuals age 19 to 50: 1000 mg/day (including diet)
  • For adults age 51 and older:
    • Women: 1500 mg/day (including diet)
    • Men: 1200 mg/day (including diet)
  • Pregnant and breastfeeding females under 19 years: 1300 mg/day (including diet)
  • Pregnant and breastfeeding females age 19 and older: 1000 mg/day (including diet)
  • Note:   These recommendations do not incorporate research demonstrating that doses above 800 mg/day may be unnecessary with adequate vitamin D levels.

Pharmacological/Therapeutic: Calcium intake as high as 3000 mg/day, together with 10 to 50 µg/day vitamin D3(cholecalciferol), may be appropriate if plasma calcium and phosphate levels are stable and within normal range (e.g., in treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism in uremia). 28

Calcium deficits associated with vitamin D deficiency may warrant daily doses up to 6000 mg of calcium acetate or calcium carbonate.

Toxic: Total calcium intake, from combined dietary and supplemental sources, should not exceed 2500 mg/day for long-term use. Large, acute doses normally exhibit no toxic effects. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) established by the U.S. Food and Nutrition Board (FNB), Institute of Medicine, for vitamin C in adults (≥19 years) is 2500 mg/day.

Pediatric (<18 years)

Dietary:

  • Infants, birth to 6 months: 210 mg/day; breast-feeding optimal
  • Infants, 7 months to 1 year: 270 mg/day
  • Children, 1 to 3 years: 500 mg/day
  • Children, 4 to 8 years: 800 mg/day

Supplemental/Maintenance: A daily intake of 1300 mg total calcium (diet plus supplements) is generally considered necessary to promote the attainment of maximal peak bone mass in children and adolescents.

Pharmacological/Therapeutic: 500 to 2500 mg/day.

Toxic: UL for calcium:

  • Infants, 0 to 12 months: Not established; dietary source only recommended
  • Children, 1 to 13 years: 2500 mg
  • Adolescents, 14 to 18 years: 2500 mg

Laboratoary Values

Serum Calcium

Normal levels: 2.2 to 2.6 mmol/L (8.4-10.2 mg/dL).

Serum calcium levels are maintained within tight parameters under most circumstances and do not provide accurate or sensitive markers for calcium status. Low blood calcium level usually implies abnormal parathyroid function and/or vitamin D deficiency, or low serum albumin. Elevated blood calcium levels are more likely to occur in response to higher absorption during calcium deficiency than with true excess. More often, elevated blood calcium occurs from hyperparathyroid states, vitamin D excess (usually in lymphoma, or sarcoid, or other granulomatous diseases where pathological tissues convert 25-OH vitamin D to calcitriol autonomously), or hypercalcemia of malignancy, which is usually caused by tumor-produced hormones that have PTH-like activity. Milk-alkali syndrome, as discussed later, is of historical interest only as a cause of hypercalcemia.

Ionized (Unbound) Serum Calcium

Normal levels: 1.17 to 1.29 mmol/L.

Low levels may indicate negative calcium balance.

Urinary Calcium

Normal levels:

  • Women: Approximately 150 to 250 mg/day
  • Men: Approximately 200 to 300 mg/day

safety profile

Overview

Calcium is generally considered safe at usual doses. Even in large doses, calcium absorption is limited, blood and tissue levels are tightly regulated, it is efficiently excreted, and toxicity rarely results. Some forms of calcium, notably calcium carbonate, may cause abdominal bloating, flatulence, and constipation in some individuals. Interference with absorption of other nutrients, particularly magnesium, iron, and zinc, as well as some medications, is the primary adverse effect associated with large doses of calcium. However, concern has been raised in recent years about excessively high levels of lead in some forms of calcium, particularly those derived from bonemeal, dolomite, and oyster shell.

Nutrient Adverse Effects

General Adverse Effects

Hypercalcemia has been reported in association with calcium supplements and antacids but has never been attributed to dietary (i.e., food) sources of calcium. Ingestion of extremely large amounts of calcium (5000 mg/day, or >2000 mg/day over long period) can produce a toxic response. However, excess calcium levels are more likely to result from pathological processes such as hyperparathyroidism, certain types of cancer, kidney failure, breakdown of bone, or excessive levels of vitamin D.

Mild hypercalcemia is usually asymptomatic, but higher levels (>12 mg/dL) often result in symptoms that include loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, dry mouth, thirst, and frequent urination. More severe hypercalcemia may result in renal toxicity, cardiac arrhythmias, confusion, delirium, coma, and if not treated, death.

Milk-alkali syndrome, resulting from concomitant consumption of large quantities of milk, calcium carbonate (antacid), and sodium bicarbonate (absorbable alkali), represents the most well-known form of hypercalcemia. This obsolete treatment for peptic ulcers often involved calcium supplement levels from 1.5 to 16.5 g/day for 2 days to 30 years.

Increased excretion of calcium by the kidneys (hypercalciuria) constitutes a more significant risk factor for nephrolithiasis than does high calcium intake per se. In fact, most evidence indicates that enriched dietary calcium is associated with a decreased risk of oxalate kidney stones (which represent 80% of renal stones), presumably due to binding of dietary oxalate in the gut, thus decreasing its absorption. However, one large prospective study found that women taking supplemental calcium (of unspecified form) had a 20% higher risk of developing kidney stones than those who did not. These researchers also observed that women consuming low-calcium diets were at greater risk for stones than those with higher calcium intakes, perhaps, as they speculated, because of reciprocal hyperoxaluria. 29 Nevertheless, a diet low in animal protein and sodium, but with normal calcium levels, is more effective in preventing recurrence of calcium oxalate kidney stones than a diet low in calcium. 30 The form of calcium may be the differentiating factor deserving further investigations. Some clinicians have reported that calcium citrate can be beneficial in preventing or reversing kidney stones and bone spurs, and that calcium carbonate is more frequently associated with pathological calcification processes. As noted, higher levels of calcium from food may complex with dietary oxalates in the intestines and reduce their absorption; likewise, taking calcium supplements separate from food will significantly reduce their beneficial effect of decreasing intestinal oxalate absorption.

Adverse Effects Among Specific Populations

Risks from calcium supplementation are significantly greater in individuals with hyperparathyroidism, certain types of cancer, kidney failure, or other conditions that interfere with normal calcium regulation.

Pregnancy and Nursing

Evidence of adverse effects in pregnancy resulting from calcium supplementation is lacking. Calcium supplementation is generally advised during pregnancy and lactation and can reduce risk of preeclampsia.

Infants and Children

Some sources have suggested that calcium supplements should be used under medical supervision in young children because of a risk of bowel perforation. Nondairy foods rich in calcium are preferred, with human breast milk being the superior food source for infants. Liquid forms are available when supplementation is appropriate. Children may also do well with some chewable forms, although some products contain sugar, which is not recommended.

Contraindications

Calcium supplementation is contraindicated in some individuals with hyperparathyroidism, chronic renal impairment or kidney disease, sarcoidosis or other granulomatous diseases, cancer patients with a history of hypercalcemia, or patients with a history of idiopathic calcium stones (except the common calcium oxalate stones, in which calcium supplementation with meals may reduce the risk of stone formation by binding dietary oxalate).

Precautions and Warnings

Caution is generally appropriate in conditions associated with hypercalcuria and hypercalcemia. Soft tissue calcification may occur with hyperparathyroidism, hyperphosphatemia, magnesium deficiency, or vitamin D overdoses. Calcium supplements should be used with caution and with medical supervision in hypertensive individuals because blood pressure control may be altered. As previously suggested, judicious selection of the form of calcium used may reduce or even reverse the risk factors involved with supplementation in individuals with these conditions.

High calcium intake, primarily from milk and dairy products, may increase prostate cancer risk by lowering concentrations of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3[1,25(OH)2D3], a hormone thought to protect against prostate cancer. The epidemiological evidence, however, is mixed. Other evidence indicates that calcium supplementation is not associated with increased risk of prostate cancer. 31-36Nevertheless, calcium supplementation is sometimes considered as contraindicated in men diagnosed with prostate cancer. If calcium were found to have such an adverse effect, concomitant supplementation with vitamin D might provide a safe, simple, and effective counterpoint.

interactions review

Strategic Considerations

The many interactions involving calcium reveal several consistent patterns. Nevertheless, most of the available clinical research has inadequate specificity, depth, complexity, and duration and cannot capture many of the nuances that will enable clinicians to navigate their diverse implications. Calcium and many medications can interfere with each other in ways that are easily avoided or that require tactical choices within a strategic approach. On occasion, the adverse effects on calcium-rich tissue can be swift and permanent (e.g., tetracycline, sometimes corticosteroids). More often, medications interfere with calcium function or cause steady depletion that will increase risks of adverse effects over time. Notably, physicians prescribing such agents over extended periods (e.g., anticonvulsants, opioids and oral glucocorticoids) usually do not advise or prescribe adequate countermeasures, whether calcium and vitamin D, bisphosphonates, or the combination, to address effectively the common occurrence of drug-induced decreases in BMD and increased risk of fracture. 37,38Conversely, the risk of hypercalcemia/hypercalciuria from calcium intake through supplements or dietary sources is improbable outside of metabolic pathologies influencing the calcium and vitamin D regulatory systems. Overall, calcium tends to follow the patterns of other dense aspects of nature and physiology, which come on gradually, move slowly, and can be difficult to reverse once established.

Calcium and many medications complex or otherwise bind to each other, thus reducing absorption of both agents. During short courses of treatment, this interaction may reduce drug absorption and activity to a clinically significant degree. In contrast, any short-term interference with calcium assimilation will not interfere with the intended therapeutic action in a strategically important degree, given that most uses of calcium are long term, preventive, or cumulative. In most situations, simple temporal separation of intake is adequate to avoid such interference; when not sufficient, however, the calcium may need to be temporarily discontinued, usually with minimal or no impact on therapeutic intentions. Importantly, calcium-fortified foods, such as orange juice, are often not thought of as “calcium supplements” and can significantly interfere with absorption of pharmaceutical medications that bind to calcium, when taken with such beverages.

Significant and often severe limitations in the ability to reach conclusions about interactions involving “calcium” occur because of the various calcium salts potentially involved. Too often, an easy but potentially misleading tendency is to generalize from research that often is not clear, especially in secondary sources and derivative literature, and particularly in abstract form. An even greater interpretive error is to extrapolate from findings involving parenteral calcium to the use of oral calcium supplements; the two situations are physiologically vastly different, and almost never comparable. Calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate are best taken with meals to optimize absorption. 21 Other calcium salts can be taken without regard to food intake or meals; this may make them preferable for hypochlorhydric individuals and patients prescribed H2antagonists or other medications that reduce gastric acidity, particularly proton pump inhibitors (PPIs).

The literature is further complicated by the presence of research and case reports involving calcium salts as antacids, particularly when observations regarding such substances are extrapolated to calcium supplements. Except for differences in the substances themselves, gastric acidity, achlorhydria, and acid suppression are all complicating issues of significant import. Likewise, some studies and many commentators fail to distinguish between calcium intake from calcium supplements and that from dietary intake of milk and dairy products.

Multiple variables (e.g., individual biochemical variability, gender, life stage, diet, vitamin D status) that influence how “calcium” will be absorbed and function in any given individual need to be further evaluated before considering the medications and conditions being treated.

The inadequacies of standard knowledge and clinical practice regarding the prevalence and assessment of vitamin D deficiency emerging in recent years will increasingly reveal deep implications for calcium balance, bone health, and much more. Many agents that deplete calcium or otherwise interfere with its metabolism do so indirectly through their adverse effects on vitamin D status. Although direct effects on calcium may also be present, the effects on vitamin D can significantly impair calcium absorption and activity. Conversely, elevated levels of vitamin D can cause an increased absorption of calcium.

Pervasive vitamin D deficiency status and underutilization of laboratory assessment for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels influence and limit research design, interpretation, and clinical practice within conventional medicine. For example, in 2005, two randomized controlled trials of calcium carbonate and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) reported that administration for prevention of fractures in primary care produced widely publicized conclusions declaring that such nutrient supplementation provided no value in preventing fractures. 39,40Such assertions were made despite disclosures that (1) vitamin D levels had been tested in only a small sample of the subjects in one of the studies; (2) vitamin D deficiency appeared to be common within the subject populations, as indicated by responses to vitamin D supplementation; (3) quality control of the supplements was very poor; (4) compliance was marginal and declined over time (e.g., 63%, or as low as 45%); and (5) the use of calcium carbonate in a population of older and often hypochlorhydric subjects would be considered suboptimal by many, if not most, experienced practitioners of nutritional therapeutics. Digestion of calcium carbonate relies on the integrity of gastric function and the bowel culture to produce the ionizing acids. Thus, gastrointestinal adverse effects, typical of calcium carbonate, were cited as a major factor in greater noncompliance with calcium intake.

In the study in which 1% of the subjects had their vitamin D levels actually measured, there was only a marginal increase after 1 year of supplementation with 800 IU of vitamin D per day (although when analyzed, some of the supplements contained as little as 372 IU, mean value, per tablet). Average 25(OH)D levels at beginning of the study (15 ng/mL) were in the range of severe deficiency, and after 1 year improved only to 24 ng/mL, still well below what many vitamin D researchers consider to be adequate levels (30-40 ng/mL). 41 Subsequently, in a trial involving 944 healthy Icelandic adults, Steingrimsdottir et al. 8 found that with 25(OH)D levels below 10 ng/mL, maintaining calcium intake above 800 mg/day appeared to normalize calcium metabolism, as determined by the PTH level, but in individuals with higher 25(OH)D levels, no benefit was observed from calcium intake above 800 mg/day. Clearly, further research on calcium and other minerals involved in bone metabolism need to take into account, and preferably optimize, vitamin D status.

Notably, in conventional practice, the main pharmacological intervention for the prevention of bone loss is antiresorptive drugs, such as bisphosphonates, for which almost every clinical trial has included coadministration of calcium or vitamin D. Moreover, the decontextualization and narrow focus of these studies highlight the shortcomings of standard research methodology and clinical practice to consider the broad factors of aging, lifestyle, activity level, drug depletions, and poor nutritional status characteristic of the populations in question, as well as the complex nature of bone health and its reliance on interdependencies of multiple nutrients and tissues, rather than using such a narrow focus on supplemental calcium and vitamin D. As public and practitioner attention on vitamin D grows, it may prove a pivotal issue in expanding perceptions and awareness, analysis, and intervention through a broad integrative model more accurately reflecting patient needs, with a scientific understanding of the breadth and complexity of the processes involved.

Ultimately, perhaps the most limiting aspects of the research findings generally available involve the questions asked, the assessment methods used, and the time frames considered. As noted in many sections, the markers of blood calcium levels and other short-term indices do not adequately address the issue of calcium depletion over time; the feedback systems of calcium homeostasis involve vitamin D synthesis and activation, calcium absorption, tubular reabsorption and urinary excretion, PTH production and secretion, and bone formation, catabolism, and resorption. Thus, as a drug interferes with calcium absorption and metabolism and induces a depletion pattern anywhere along the way, superficial parameters may remain within normal parameters, but the long-term state of bone density may be in steady decline. For this reason, it is often clinically useful to assess markers of bone breakdown, such as urinary pyridinium cross-links (pyridinium and deoxypyridinium), as a baseline, when starting a pharmaceutical intervention with the potential to impact calcium balance negatively. An increase in urinary markers of bone breakdown signifies the development of negative calcium balance, despite all other markers related to calcium appearing normal, because of intrinsic calcium homeostatic mechanisms. This can serve as an early warning sign and allow for nutritional interventions to correct negative calcium balance without waiting to find a decrease in bone density on a subsequent bone density scan.

See also Vitamin D in Nutrient-Nutrient Interactions.

nutrient-drug interactions
Aminoglycoside Antibiotics, Including Gentamicin and Neomycin
Amphotericin B
Antacids Containing Aluminum and Magnesium
Anticonvulsant Medications
Atenolol and Related Beta-1-Adrenoceptor Antagonists (Beta-1-Adrenergic Blocking Agents)
Bile Acid Sequestrants
Bisphosphonates
Calcitonin
Calcium Acetate
Cholestyramine, Colestipol, and Related Bile Acid Sequestrants
Corticosteroids, Oral, Including Prednisone
EDTA
ESTROGENS, PROGESTINS, AND ESTROGEN-PROGESTIN COMBINATIONS:
Oral Contraceptives: Monophasic, Biphasic, and Triphasic Estrogen Preparations (Synthetic Estrogen and Progesterone Analogs)
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT): Estrogen-Containing and Synthetic Estrogen and Progesterone Analog Medications
Fluoroquinolone (4-Quinolone) Antibiotics
Cimetidine and Related Histamine (H 2 ) Receptor Antagonists
Omeprazole and Related Proton Pump Inhibitors
Heparin, Unfractionated
Isoniazid
Levothyroxine and Related Thyroid Hormones
Metformin and Related Biguanides
Sulfamethoxazole and Related Sulfonamide Antibiotics
Tetracycline Antibiotics
Thiazide Diuretics
Verapamil and Related Calcium Channel Blockers
unproven, speculative, and overstated interactions claims
Albuterol/Salbutamol and Related Beta-2-Adrenoceptor Agonists
Beclomethasone
Caffeine (and Coffee)
Cisplatin
Colchicine
Cycloserine
Diclofenac and Related Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
Digoxin and Related Cardiac Glycosides
Dobutamine
Erythromycin and Related Macrolide Antibiotics
Hydroxychloroquine and Chloroquine
Indapamide
Indomethacin

Indomethacin (Indometacin; Indocin, Indocin-SR).

Prostaglandins E 1 and E 2 (PGE 2 ) stimulate bone resorption. This has been proposed as a possible mechanism for hypercalcemia in malignancy (particularly renal cell carcinoma). Some in vitro and in vivo research has shown that indomethacin, a specific prostaglandin biosynthesis inhibitor, may reduce plasma calcium (and phosphate) levels. However, in a trial involving patients with breast cancer, Coombes et al. 248 found that indomethacin did not reduce serum calcium levels in patients with hypercalcemia, nor did it reduce skeletal destruction, as measured by the urinary hydroxyproline/creatinine ratio and urinary calcium in normocalcemic or hypercalcemic patients with osteolytic metastases. Similarly, in a study of PGE 2 , parathormone (PTH), and response to indomethacin in patients with hypercalcemia of malignancy, Brenner et al. 249 found that PGE 2 and calcium fell to normal levels in 3 of 14 patients (breast, colon, renal carcinomas) after administration of indomethacin. In a rat model, Gomaa et al. 250 observed that indomethacin increased serum levels of calcium.

This potential interaction could be especially relevant in patients using indomethacin for joint pain and inflammation (e.g., osteoarthritis) or after orthopedic procedures. However, evidence is lacking to determine whether coadministration of nutrients might be appropriate or beneficial.

Laxatives, Stimulant
Loop Diuretics
Medroxyprogesterone
Mineral Oil
Potassium-Sparing Diuretics
Retinoic Acid and Related Retinoids
Salicylates
Sodium Fluoride
Sucralfate
Tamoxifen
nutrient-nutrient interactions
Alcohol
Caffeine and Coffee
Essential Fatty Acids
Iron
Lysine
Magnesium
Milk and Dairy Products
Phosphorus
Protein
Sodium
Soy
Vitamin D
Zinc
Citations and Reference Literature
  • 1.Lloyd T, Petit MA, Lin HM, Beck TJ. Lifestyle factors and the development of bone mass and bone strength in young women. J Pediatr 2004;144:776-782.View Abstract
  • 2.Rico H, Revilla M, Villa LF et al. Longitudinal study of the effect of calcium pidolate on bone mass in eugonadal women. Calcif Tissue Int 1994;54:477-480.View Abstract
  • 3.Ramsdale SJ, Bassey EJ, Pye DJ. Dietary calcium intake relates to bone mineral density in premenopausal women. Br J Nutr 1994;71:77-84.View Abstract
  • 4.Earnshaw SA, Worley A, Hosking DJ. Current diet does not relate to bone mineral density after the menopause. The Nottingham Early Postmenopausal Intervention Cohort (EPIC) Study Group. Br J Nutr 1997;78:65-72.
  • 5.New SA, Bolton-Smith C, Grubb DA, Reid DM. Nutritional influences on bone mineral density: a cross-sectional study in premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:1831-1839.View Abstract
  • 6.Valimaki MJ, Karkkainen M, Lamberg-Allardt C et al. Exercise, smoking, and calcium intake during adolescence and early adulthood as determinants of peak bone mass. Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study Group. BMJ 1994;309:230-235.
  • 7.Power ML, Heaney RP, Kalkwarf HJ et al. The role of calcium in health and disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:1560-1569.View Abstract
  • 8.Steingrimsdottir L, Gunnarsson O, Indridason OS et al. Relationship between serum parathyroid hormone levels, vitamin D sufficiency, and calcium intake. JAMA 2005;294:2336-2341.
  • 9.Celotti F, Bignamini A. Dietary calcium and mineral/vitamin supplementation: a controversial problem. J Int Med Res 1999;27:1-14.View Abstract
  • 10.Ames SK, Ellis KJ, Gunn SK et al. Vitamin D receptor gene Fok1 polymorphism predicts calcium absorption and bone mineral density in children. J Bone Miner Res 1999;14:740-746.
  • 11.Abrams SA, Griffin IJ, Hawthorne KM et al. Relationships among vitamin D levels, parathyroid hormone, and calcium absorption in young adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90(10):5576-5581.
  • 12.Abrams SA, Griffin IJ, Hawthorne KM, Liang L. Height and height Z-score are related to calcium absorption in five- to fifteen-year-old girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:5077-5081.View Abstract
  • 13.Abrams SA, Griffin IJ, Hawthorne KM et al. Vitamin D receptor Fok1 polymorphisms affect calcium absorption, kinetics, and bone mineralization rates during puberty. J Bone Miner Res 2005;20:945-953.
  • 14.Barger-Lux MJ, Heaney RP. Calcium absorptive efficiency is positively related to body size. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:5118-5120.View Abstract
  • 15.Heaney RP, Magowan S, Zhous S. Prevalence of low calcium intake in postmenopausal osteoporotic women: the need for supplementation. Abstract M276. American Society of Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) 27th Annual Meeting. Nashville, Tenn; 2005.
  • 16.Lanou AJ, Berkow SE, Barnard ND. Calcium, dairy products, and bone health in children and young adults: a reevaluation of the evidence. Pediatrics 2005;115:736-743.View Abstract
  • 17.Tucker KL, Morita K, Qiao N et al. Colas, but not other carbonated beverages, are associated with low bone mineral density in older women: The Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:936-942.View Abstract
  • 18.Recker RR. Calcium absorption and achlorhydria. N Engl J Med 1985;313:70-73.View Abstract
  • 19.Fujita T, Ohue T, Fujii Y et al. Heated oyster shell–seaweed calcium (AAA Ca) on osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int 1996;58:226-230.View Abstract
  • 20.Heller HJ, Stewart A, Haynes S, Pak CY. Pharmacokinetics of calcium absorption from two commercial calcium supplements. J Clin Pharmacol 1999;39:1151-1154.View Abstract
  • 21.Heaney RP, Dowell MS, Barger-Lux MJ. Absorption of calcium as the carbonate and citrate salts, with some observations on method. Osteoporos Int 1999;9:19-23.View Abstract
  • 22.Heaney RP, Rafferty K, Dowell MS, Bierman J. Calcium fortification systems differ in bioavailability. J Am Diet Assoc 2005;105:807-809.View Abstract
  • 23.Bourgoin BP, Evans DR, Cornett JR et al. Lead content in 70 brands of dietary calcium supplements. Am J Public Health 1993;83:1155-1160.View Abstract
  • 24.Muldoon SB, Cauley JA, Kuller LH et al. Lifestyle and sociodemographic factors as determinants of blood lead levels in elderly women. Am J Epidemiol 1994;139:599-608.View Abstract
  • 25.Nolan CR, DeGoes JJ, Alfrey AC. Aluminum and lead absorption from dietary sources in women ingesting calcium citrate. South Med J 1994;87:894-898.View Abstract
  • 26.Ross EA, Szabo NJ, Tebbett IR. Lead content of calcium supplements. JAMA 2000;284:1425-1429.View Abstract
  • 27.Harvey JA, Zobitz MM, Pak CY. Dose dependency of calcium absorption: a comparison of calcium carbonate and calcium citrate. J Bone Miner Res 1988;3:253-258.View Abstract
  • 28.Drueke TB. Medical management of secondary hyperparathyroidism in uremia. Am J Med Sci 1999;317:383-389.View Abstract
  • 29.Curhan GC, Willett WC, Speizer FE et al. Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Ann Intern Med 1997;126:497-504.View Abstract
  • 30.Borghi L, Schianchi T, Meschi T et al. Comparison of two diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med 2002;346:77-84.View Abstract
  • 31.Vlajinac HD, Marinkovic JM, Ilic MD, Kocev NI. Diet and prostate cancer: a case-control study. Eur J Cancer 1997;33:101-107.View Abstract
  • 32.Chan JM, Giovannucci E, Andersson SO et al. Dairy products, calcium, phosphorous, vitamin D, and risk of prostate cancer (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 1998;9:559-566.View Abstract
  • 33.Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Wolk A et al. Calcium and fructose intake in relation to risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Res 1998;58:442-447.View Abstract
  • 34.Kristal AR, Stanford JL, Cohen JH et al. Vitamin and mineral supplement use is associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1999;8:887-892.View Abstract
  • 35.Yang CY, Chiu HF, Tsai SS et al. Calcium and magnesium in drinking water and risk of death from prostate cancer. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2000;60:17-26.View Abstract
  • 36.Chan JM, Stampfer MJ, Ma J et al. Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk in the Physicians’ Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:549-554.View Abstract
  • 37.Kinjo M, Setoguchi S, Schneeweiss S, Solomon DH. Bone mineral density in subjects using central nervous system-active medications. Am J Med 2005;118:1414.View Abstract
  • 38.Liu RH, Albrecht J, Werth VP. Cross-sectional study of bisphosphonate use in dermatology patients receiving long-term oral corticosteroid therapy. Arch Dermatol 2006;142:37-41.View Abstract
  • 39.Porthouse J, Cockayne S, King C et al. Randomised controlled trial of calcium and supplementation with cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) for prevention of fractures in primary care. BMJ 2005;330:1003.View Abstract
  • 40.Grant AM, Avenell A, Campbell MK et al. Oral vitamin D3 and calcium for secondary prevention of low-trauma fractures in elderly people (Randomised Evaluation of Calcium or Vitamin D, RECORD): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2005;365:1621-1628.View Abstract
  • 41.Holick MF. Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:362-371.View Abstract
  • 42.Sastrasinh M, Weinberg JM, Humes HD. The effect of gentamicin on calcium uptake by renal mitochondria. Life Sci 1982;30:2309-2315.View Abstract
  • 43.Garland HO, Phipps DJ, Harpur ES. Gentamicin-induced hypercalciuria in the rat: assessment of nephron site involved. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992;263:293-297.View Abstract
  • 44.Parsons PP, Garland HO, Harpur ES, Old S. Acute gentamicin-induced hypercalciuria and hypermagnesiuria in the rat: dose-response relationship and role of renal tubular injury. Br J Pharmacol 1997;122:570-576.View Abstract
  • 45.Schneider M, Valentine S, Clarke GM et al. Acute renal failure in cardiac surgical patients, potentiated by gentamicin and calcium. Anaesth Intensive Care 1996;24:647-650.View Abstract
  • 46.Kelnar CJ, Taor WS, Reynolds DJ et al. Hypomagnesaemic hypocalcaemia with hypokalaemia caused by treatment with high dose gentamicin. Arch Dis Child 1978;53:817-820.View Abstract
  • 47.Mazze RI, Cousins MJ. Combined nephrotoxicity of gentamicin and methoxyflurane anaesthesia in man: a case report. Br J Anaesth 1973;45:394-398.View Abstract
  • 48.Kes P, Reiner Z. Symptomatic hypomagnesemia associated with gentamicin therapy. Magnes Trace Elem 1990;9:54-60.View Abstract
  • 49.Valdivieso A, Mardones JM, Loyola MS, Cubillos AM. [Hypomagnesemia associated with hypokalemia, hyponatremia and metabolic alkalosis: possible complication of gentamycin therapy]. Rev Med Chil 1992;120:914-919.View Abstract
  • 50.Jain A, Butani L. Severe hyperphosphatemia resulting from high-dose liposomal amphotericin in a child with leukemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2003;25:324-326.View Abstract
  • 51.Slanina P, Frech W, Bernhardson A et al. Influence of dietary factors on aluminum absorption and retention in the brain and bone of rats. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 1985;56:331-336.
  • 52.Walker JA, Sherman RA, Cody RP. The effect of oral bases on enteral aluminum absorption. Arch Intern Med 1990;150:2037-2039.View Abstract
  • 53.Gugler R, Allgayer H. Effects of antacids on the clinical pharmacokinetics of drugs: an update. Clin Pharmacokinet 1990;18:210-219.View Abstract
  • 54.Anonymous. Preliminary findings suggest calcium citrate supplements may raise aluminum levels in blood, urine. Fam Pract News 1992;22:74-75.
  • 55.Weberg R, Berstad A, Aaseth J, Falch JA. Mineral-metabolic side effects of low-dose antacids. Scand J Gastroenterol 1985;20:741-746.View Abstract
  • 56.Coburn JW, Mischel MG, Goodman WG, Salusky IB. Calcium citrate markedly enhances aluminum absorption from aluminum hydroxide. Am J Kidney Dis 1991;17:708-711.View Abstract
  • 57.Spencer H, Kramer L. Antacid-induced calcium loss. Arch Intern Med 1983;143:657-659.View Abstract
  • 58.Wahl TO, Gobuty AH, Lukert BP. Long-term anticonvulsant therapy and intestinal calcium absorption. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981;30:506-512.View Abstract
  • 59.Winnacker JL, Yeager H, Saunders JA et al. Rickets in children receiving anticonvulsant drugs: biochemical and hormonal markers. Am J Dis Child 1977;131:286-290.View Abstract
  • 60.Adachi JD, Ioannidis G. Calcium and vitamin D therapy in corticosteroid-induced bone loss: what is the evidence? Calcif Tissue Int 1999;65:332-336.
  • 61.Somerman MJ, Rifkin BR, Pointon-Miska S, Au WY. Effect of phenytoin on rat bone resorption in vitro. Arch Oral Biol 1986;31:267-268.View Abstract
  • 62.Bell NH, Hollis BW, Shary JR et al. Diclofenac sodium inhibits bone resorption in postmenopausal women. Am J Med 1994;96:349-353.View Abstract
  • 63.Gascon-Barre M, Villeneuve JP, Lebrun LH. Effect of increasing doses of phenytoin on the plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations. J Am Coll Nutr 1984;3:45-50.View Abstract
  • 64.Shafer RB, Nuttall FQ. Calcium and folic acid absorption in patients taking anticonvulsant drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975;41:1125-1129.View Abstract
  • 65.Zerwekh JE, Homan R, Tindall R, Pak CY. Decreased serum 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D concentration during long-term anticonvulsant therapy in adult epileptics. Ann Neurol 1982;12:184-186.
  • 66.Williams C, Netzloff M, Folkerts L et al. Vitamin D metabolism and anticonvulsant therapy: effect of sunshine on incidence of osteomalacia. South Med J 1984;77:834-836, 842.View Abstract
  • 67.Riancho JA, del Arco C, Arteaga R et al. Influence of solar irradiation on vitamin D levels in children on anticonvulsant drugs. Acta Neurol Scand 1989;79:296-299.View Abstract
  • 68.Hunt PA, Wu-Chen ML, Handal NJ et al. Bone disease induced by anticonvulsant therapy and treatment with calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3). Am J Dis Child 1986;140:715-718.View Abstract
  • 69.Jekovec-Vrhovsek M, Kocijancic A, Prezelj J. Effect of vitamin D and calcium on bone mineral density in children with CP and epilepsy in full-time care. Dev Med Child Neurol 2000;42:403-405.View Abstract
  • 70.Telci A, Cakatay U, Kurt BB et al. Changes in bone turnover and deoxypyridinoline levels in epileptic patients. Clin Chem Lab Med 2000;38:47-50.View Abstract
  • 71.Farhat G, Yamout B, Mikati MA et al. Effect of antiepileptic drugs on bone density in ambulatory patients. Neurology 2002;58:1348-1353.View Abstract
  • 72.Valmadrid C, Voorhees C, Litt B, Schneyer CR. Practice patterns of neurologists regarding bone and mineral effects of antiepileptic drug therapy. Arch Neurol 2001;58:1369-1374.
  • 73.Duus BR. Fractures caused by epileptic seizures and epileptic osteomalacia. Injury 1986;17:31-33.View Abstract
  • 74.Cardiovascular agents, antiadrenergics/sympatholytics, beta-adrenergic blocking agents. In: Hines Burnham T, ed. Facts and Comparisons Drug Information. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; 2000:467-479.
  • 75.Kahela P, Anttila M, Tikkanen R, Sundquist H. Effect of food, food constituents and fluid volume on the bioavailability of sotalol. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 1979;44:7-12.View Abstract
  • 76.Kirch W, Schafer-Korting M, Axthelm T et al. Interaction of atenolol with furosemide and calcium and aluminum salts. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981;30:429-435.View Abstract
  • 77.Shearer MJ. The roles of vitamins D and K in bone health and osteoporosis prevention. Proc Nutr Soc 1997;56:915-937.View Abstract
  • 78.Heaney RP. Constructive interactions among nutrients and bone-active pharmacologic agents with principal emphasis on calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D and protein. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20:403S-409S; discussion 417S-420S.
  • 79.Heaney RP, Weaver CM. Calcium and vitamin D. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2003;32:181-194, vii-viii.View Abstract
  • 80.Greenspan SL, Resnick NM, Parker RA. Combination therapy with hormone replacement and alendronate for prevention of bone loss in elderly women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003;289:2525-2533.View Abstract
  • 81.Heckman GA, Papaioannou A, Sebaldt RJ et al. Effect of vitamin D on bone mineral density of elderly patients with osteoporosis responding poorly to bisphosphonates. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2002;3:6.View Abstract
  • 82.Brazier M, Kamel S, Lorget F et al. Biological effects of supplementation with vitamin d and calcium in postmenopausal women with low bone mass receiving alendronate. Clin Drug Invest 2002;22:849-857.
  • 83.O’Doherty DP, Gertz BJ, Tindale W et al. Effects of five daily 1 h infusions of alendronate in Paget’s disease of bone. J Bone Miner Res 1992;7:81-87.
  • 84.Reasner CA, Stone MD, Hosking DJ et al. Acute changes in calcium homeostasis during treatment of primary hyperparathyroidism with risedronate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;77:1067-1071.
  • 85.Adami S. Bisphosphonates in prostate carcinoma. Cancer 1997;80:1674-1679.View Abstract
  • 86.Nelson JB, Greenspan SL, Resnick NM et al. Once weekly oral alendronate prevents bone loss in men on androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. Abstract 139. American Society of Clinical Oncology Prostate Cancer Symposium. San Francisco; 2006.
  • 87.Jeffery JR, Leslie WD, Karpinski ME et al. Prevalence and treatment of decreased bone density in renal transplant recipients: a randomized prospective trial of calcitriol versus alendronate. Transplantation 2003;76:1498-1502.View Abstract
  • 88.Siffledeen JS, Fedorak RN, Siminoski K et al. Randomized trial of etidronate plus calcium and vitamin D for treatment of low bone mineral density in Crohn’s disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:122-132.
  • 89.Bernstein CN. Limiting fracture risk in Crohn’s disease: is there anything better than calcium and vitamin D? Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:110-112.
  • 90.Siris ES. Utilization and correlates of osteoporosis treatment in postmenopausal women: observations from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment (NORA). Abstract M378. American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) 27th Annual Meeting. Nashville, Tenn; 2005.
  • 91.Ruggiero SL, Mehrotra B, Rosenberg TJ, Engroff SL. Osteonecrosis of the jaws associated with the use of bisphosphonates: a review of 63 cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004;62:527-534.View Abstract
  • 92.Flicker L, Mead K, MacInnis RJ et al. Serum vitamin D and falls in older women in residential care in Australia. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003;51:1533-1538.View Abstract
  • 93.Janssen HC, Samson MM, Verhaar HJ. Vitamin D deficiency, muscle function, and falls in elderly people. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:611-615.View Abstract
  • 94.Nieves JW, Komar L, Cosman F, Lindsay R. Calcium potentiates the effect of estrogen and calcitonin on bone mass: review and analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67:18-24.View Abstract
  • 95.Leonard JP, Desager JP, Beckers C, Harvengt C. In vitro binding of various biological substances by two hypocholesterolaemic resins: cholestyramine and colestipol. Arzneimittelforschung 1979;29:979-981.
  • 96.Watkins DW, Khalafi R, Cassidy MM, Vahouny GV. Alterations in calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc metabolism by dietary cholestyramine. Dig Dis Sci 1985;30:477-482.View Abstract
  • 97.Schlierf G, Vogel G, Kohlmeier M et al. [Long-term therapy of familial hypercholesterolemia in young patients with colestipol: availability of minerals and vitamins]. Klin Wochenschr 1985;63:802-806.View Abstract
  • 98.Tonstad S, Sivertsen M, Aksnes L, Ose L. Low dose colestipol in adolescents with familial hypercholesterolaemia. Arch Dis Child 1996;74:157-160.View Abstract
  • 99.Hahn TJ, Halstead LR, Haddad JG Jr. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in patients receiving chronic corticosteroid therapy. J Lab Clin Med 1977;90:399-404.
  • 100.Chesney RW, Mazess RB, Hamstra AJ et al. Reduction of serum-1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin-D3 in children receiving glucocorticoids. Lancet 1978;2:1123-1125.View Abstract
  • 101.Hahn TJ, Halstead LR, Baran DT. Effects off short term glucocorticoid administration on intestinal calcium absorption and circulating vitamin D metabolite concentrations in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981;52:111-115.View Abstract
  • 102.Yeh JK, Aloia JF, Semla HM. Interrelation of cortisone and 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol on intestinal calcium and phosphate absorption. Calcif Tissue Int 1984;36:608-614.View Abstract
  • 103.Avioli LV. Effects of chronic corticosteroid therapy on mineral metabolism and calcium absorption. Adv Exp Med Biol 1984;171:81-89.View Abstract
  • 104.Reid IR, Ibbertson HK. Evidence for decreased tubular reabsorption of calcium in glucocorticoid-treated asthmatics. Horm Res 1987;27:200-204.View Abstract
  • 105.Nielsen HK, Eriksen EF, Storm T, Mosekilde L. The effects of short-term, high-dose treatment with prednisone on the nuclear uptake of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in monocytes from normal human subjects. Metabolism 1988;37:109-114.View Abstract
  • 106.Nielsen HK, Charles P, Mosekilde L. The effect of single oral doses of prednisone on the circadian rhythm of serum osteocalcin in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67:1025-1030.View Abstract
  • 107.Mitchell DR, Lyles KW. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: mechanisms for bone loss; evaluation of strategies for prevention. J Gerontol 1990;45:M153-M158.View Abstract
  • 108.Trovato A, Nuhlicek DN, Midtling JE. Drug-nutrient interactions. Am Fam Physician 1991;44:1651-1658.View Abstract
  • 109.Gennari C. Differential effect of glucocorticoids on calcium absorption and bone mass. Br J Rheumatol 1993;32 Suppl 2:11-14.View Abstract
  • 110.Gennari C. Glucocorticoid induced osteoporosis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1994;41:273-274.View Abstract
  • 111.Adachi JD, Bensen WG, Bianchi F et al. Vitamin D and calcium in the prevention of corticosteroid induced osteoporosis: a 3 year followup. J Rheumatol 1996;23:995-1000.View Abstract
  • 112.Lems WF, Van Veen GJ, Gerrits MI et al. Effect of low-dose prednisone (with calcium and calcitriol supplementation) on calcium and bone metabolism in healthy volunteers. Br J Rheumatol 1998;37:27-33.View Abstract
  • 113.Buckley LM, Leib ES, Cartularo KS et al. Calcium and vitamin D3 supplementation prevents bone loss in the spine secondary to low-dose corticosteroids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1996;125:961-968.View Abstract
  • 114.Kinberg KA, Hopp RJ, Biven RE, Gallagher JC. Bone mineral density in normal and asthmatic children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1994;94:490-497.View Abstract
  • 115.Reid IR, Veale AG, France JT. Glucocorticoid osteoporosis. J Asthma 1994;31:7-18.View Abstract
  • 116.Naganathan V, Jones G, Nash P et al. Vertebral fracture risk with long-term corticosteroid therapy: prevalence and relation to age, bone density, and corticosteroid use. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2917-2922.View Abstract
  • 117.Tsugeno H, Fujita T, Goto B et al. Vertebral fracture and cortical bone changes in corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 2002;13:650-656.View Abstract
  • 118.Wong CA, Subakumar G, Casey PM. Effects of asthma and asthma therapies on bone mineral density. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2002;8:39-44.View Abstract
  • 119.Walsh LJ, Lewis SA, Wong CA et al. The impact of oral corticosteroid use on bone mineral density and vertebral fracture. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:691-695.View Abstract
  • 120.Steinbuch M, Youket TE, Cohen S. Oral glucocorticoid use is associated with an increased risk of fracture. Osteoporos Int 2004;15:323-328.View Abstract
  • 121.Smith BJ, Phillips PJ, Pannall PR et al. Effect of orally administered beclomethasone dipropionate on calcium absorption from the gut in normal subjects. Thorax 1993;48:890-893.View Abstract
  • 122.Elmstahl S, Ekstrom H, Galvard H et al. Is there an association between inhaled corticosteroids and bone density in postmenopausal women? J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111:91-96.
  • 123.Lund B, Andersen RB, Friis T et al. Effect of 1α-hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on intestine and bone in glucocorticoid-treated patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1977;7 Suppl:177s-181s.View Abstract
  • 124.Nuti R, Vattimo A, Turchetti V, Righi G. 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol as an antagonist of adverse corticosteroid effects on phosphate and calcium metabolism in man. J Endocrinol Invest 1984;7:445-448.View Abstract
  • 125.Reid IR, Ibbertson HK. Calcium supplements in the prevention of steroid-induced osteoporosis. Am J Clin Nutr 1986;44:287-290.View Abstract
  • 126.Lems WF, Jacobs JW, Netelenbos JC et al. [Pharmacological prevention of osteoporosis in patients on corticosteroid medication]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1998;142:1904-1908.View Abstract
  • 127.Amin S, LaValley MP, Simms RW, Felson DT. The role of vitamin D in corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis: a meta-analytic approach. Arthritis Rheum 1999;42:1740-1751.View Abstract
  • 128.Homik J, Suarez-Almazor ME, Shea B et al. Calcium and vitamin D for corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000952.View Abstract
  • 129.Dykman TR, Haralson KM, Gluck OS et al. Effect of oral 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and calcium on glucocorticoid-induced osteopenia in patients with rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum 1984;27:1336-1343.View Abstract
  • 130.Perry HM, Perry, E.F. Normal concentrations of some trace minerals in human urine, changes produced by EDTA. J Clin Invest 1959;38.
  • 131.Bell CF. Principles and applications of metal chelation. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1977.
  • 132.Foreman H, Trujillo TT. The metabolism of C14 labeled ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid in human beings. J Lab Clin Med 1954;43:566-571.View Abstract
  • 133.Teegarden D, Legowski P, Gunther CW et al. Dietary calcium intake protects women consuming oral contraceptives from spine and hip bone loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90(9):5127-5133.View Abstract
  • 134.Lobo RA, Roy S, Shoupe D et al. Estrogen and progestin effects on urinary calcium and calciotropic hormones in surgically-induced postmenopausal women. Horm Metab Res 1985;17:370-373.View Abstract
  • 135.Recker RR, Davies KM, Dowd RM, Heaney RP. The effect of low-dose continuous estrogen and progesterone therapy with calcium and vitamin D on bone in elderly women: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:897-904.View Abstract
  • 136.Gallagher JC, Riggs BL, DeLuca HF. Effect of estrogen on calcium absorption and serum vitamin D metabolites in postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980;51:1359-1364.View Abstract
  • 137.Gallagher JC, Fowler SE, Detter JR, Sherman SS. Combination treatment with estrogen and calcitriol in the prevention of age-related bone loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:3618-3628.View Abstract
  • 138.NIH Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy, March 2000: highlights of the conference. South Med J 2001;94:569-573.
  • 139.The role of calcium in peri- and postmenopausal women: consensus opinion of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2001;8:84-95.
  • 140.Pines A, Katchman H, Villa Y et al. The effect of various hormonal preparations and calcium supplementation on bone mass in early menopause: is there a predictive value for the initial bone density and body weight? J Intern Med 1999;246:357-361.
  • 141.Ruml LA, Sakhaee K, Peterson R et al. The effect of calcium citrate on bone density in the early and mid-postmenopausal period: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Am J Ther 1999;6:303-311.View Abstract
  • 142.Blanchet C, Giguere Y, Prud’homme D et al. Association of physical activity and bone: influence of vitamin D receptor genotype. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002;34:24-31.
  • 143.Going S, Lohman T, Houtkooper L et al. Effects of exercise on bone mineral density in calcium-replete postmenopausal women with and without hormone replacement therapy. Osteoporos Int 2003;14:637-643.
  • 144.Milliken LA, Going SB, Houtkooper LB et al. Effects of exercise training on bone remodeling, insulin-like growth factors, and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with and without hormone replacement therapy. Calcif Tissue Int 2003;72:478-484.
  • 145.Hoffken G, Borner K, Glatzel PD et al. Reduced enteral absorption of ciprofloxacin in the presence of antacids. Eur J Clin Microbiol 1985;4:345.View Abstract
  • 146.Schentag JJ, Watson WA, Nix DE et al. Time-dependent interactions between antacids and quinolone antibiotics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988;43:135.
  • 147.Flor S, Guay DR, Opsahl JA et al. Effects of magnesium-aluminum hydroxide and calcium carbonate antacids on bioavailability of ofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;34:2436-2438.View Abstract
  • 148.Campbell NR, Hasinoff BB. Iron supplements: a common cause of drug interactions. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1991;31:251-255.View Abstract
  • 149.Kara M, Hasinoff BB, McKay DW, Campbell NR. Clinical and chemical interactions between iron preparations and ciprofloxacin. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1991;31:257-261.
  • 150.Okhamafe AO, Akerele JO, Chukuka CS. Pharmacokinetic interactions of norfloxacin with some metallic medicinal agents. Int J Pharm 1991;68:11-18.
  • 151.Brouwers JR. Drug interactions with quinolone antibacterials. Drug Saf 1992;7:268-281.View Abstract
  • 152.Frost RW, Lasseter KC, Noe AJ et al. Effects of aluminum hydroxide and calcium carbonate antacids on the bioavailability of ciprofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:830-832.View Abstract
  • 153.Shimada J, Shiba K, Oguma T et al. Effect of antacid on absorption of the quinolone lomefloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:1219-1224.View Abstract
  • 154.Lehto P, Kivisto KT. Different effects of products containing metal ions on the absorption of lomefloxacin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994;56:477-482.View Abstract
  • 155.Lim D, McKay M. Food-drug interactions. Drug Info Bull 1995;15.
  • 156.Balfour JA, Wiseman LR. Moxifloxacin. Drugs 1999;57:363-373; discussion 374.View Abstract
  • 157.Stass H, Wandel C, Delesen H, Moller JG. Effect of calcium supplements on the oral bioavailability of moxifloxacin in healthy male volunteers. Clin Pharmacokinet 2001;40 Suppl 1:27-32.View Abstract
  • 158.Frost RW, Carlson JD, Dietz AJ Jr et al. Ciprofloxacin pharmacokinetics after a standard or high-fat/high-calcium breakfast. J Clin Pharmacol 1989;29:953-955.View Abstract
  • 159.Nix DE, Watson WA, Lener ME et al. Effects of aluminum and magnesium antacids and ranitidine on the absorption of ciprofloxacin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989;46:700-705.View Abstract
  • 160.Nix DE, Wilton JH, Ronald B et al. Inhibition of norfloxacin absorption by antacids. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;34:432-435.View Abstract
  • 161.Shiba K, Sakai O, Shimada J et al. Effects of antacids, ferrous sulfate, and ranitidine on absorption of DR-3355 in humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:2270-2274.View Abstract
  • 162.Sahai J, Healy DP, Stotka J, Polk RE. The influence of chronic administration of calcium carbonate on the bioavailability of oral ciprofloxacin. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1993;35:302-304.View Abstract
  • 163.Sanchez Navarro A, Martinez Cabarga M, Dominguez-Gil Hurle A. Comparative study of the influence of Ca2+ on absorption parameters of ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994;34:119-125.View Abstract
  • 164.Lomaestro BM, Bailie GR. Effect of multiple staggered doses of calcium on the bioavailability of ciprofloxacin. Ann Pharmacother 1993;27:1325-1328.View Abstract
  • 165.Pletz MW, Petzold P, Allen A et al. Effect of calcium carbonate on bioavailability of orally administered gemifloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:2158-2160.View Abstract
  • 166.Yang Y-X, Lewis JD, Epstein S, Metz DC. Long-term proton pump inhibitor therapy and risk of hip fracture. JAMA 2006;296:2947-2953.View Abstract
  • 167.Bo-Linn GW, Davis GR, Buddrus DJ et al. An evaluation of the importance of gastric acid secretion in the absorption of dietary calcium. J Clin Invest 1984;73:640-647.View Abstract
  • 168.Wood RJ, Serfaty-Lacrosniere C. Gastric acidity, atrophic gastritis, and calcium absorption. Nutr Rev 1992;50:33-40.View Abstract
  • 169.Ghishan FK, Walker F, Meneely R et al. Intestinal calcium transport: effect of cimetidine. J Nutr 1981;111:2157-2161.View Abstract
  • 170.Fisken RA, Wilkinson R, Heath DA. The effects of cimetidine on serum calcium and parathyroid hormone levels in primary hyperparathyroidism. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1982;14:701-705.View Abstract
  • 171.Caron P, Gaillard J, Barousse C et al. [Cimetidine treatment of primary hyperparathyroidism]. Biomed Pharmacother 1987;41:143-146.View Abstract
  • 172.O’Connell MB, Madden DM, Murray AM et al. Effects of proton pump inhibitors on calcium carbonate absorption in women: a randomized crossover trial. Am J Med 2005;118:778-781.
  • 173.Hurwitz A, Brady DA, Schaal SE et al. Gastric acidity in older adults. JAMA 1997;278:659-662.View Abstract
  • 174.Edwards H, Zinberg J, King TC. Effect of cimetidine on serum calcium levels in an elderly patient. Arch Surg 1981;116:1088-1089.View Abstract
  • 175.Aarskog D, Aksnes L, Markestad T et al. Heparin-induced inhibition of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D formation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984;148:1141-1142.View Abstract
  • 176.Majerus PW, Broze GJ Jr, Miletich JP, Tollefsen DM. Anticoagulant, thrombolytic, and antiplatelet drugs. Goodman and Gilman’s the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1346.
  • 177.Wise PH, Hall AJ. Heparin-induced osteopenia in pregnancy. BMJ 1980;281:110-111.View Abstract
  • 178.Haram K, Hervig T, Thordarson H, Aksnes L. Osteopenia caused by heparin treatment in pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993;72:674-675.View Abstract
  • 179.Ringe JD, Keller A. [Risk of osteoporosis in long-term heparin therapy of thromboembolic diseases in pregnancy: attempted prevention with ossein-hydroxyapatite]. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 1992;52:426-429.View Abstract
  • 180.Brodie MJ, Boobis AR, Hillyard CJ et al. Effect of isoniazid on vitamin D metabolism and hepatic monooxygenase activity. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981;30:363-367.View Abstract
  • 181.Bengoa JM, Bolt MJ, Rosenberg IH. Hepatic vitamin D 25-hydroxylase inhibition by cimetidine and isoniazid. J Lab Clin Med 1984;104:546-552.View Abstract
  • 182.Toppet M, Vainsel M, Vertongen F et al. [Sequential development of vitamin D metabolites under isoniazid and rifampicin therapy]. Arch Fr Pediatr 1988;45:145-148.View Abstract
  • 183.Morcos MM, Gabr AA, Samuel S et al. Vitamin D administration to tuberculous children and its value. Boll Chim Farm 1998;137:157-164.View Abstract
  • 184.Singh N, Singh PN, Hershman JM. Effect of calcium carbonate on the absorption of levothyroxine. JAMA 2000;283:2822-2825.View Abstract
  • 185.Paul TL, Kerrigan J, Kelly AM et al. Long-term I-thyroxine therapy is associated with decreased hip bone density in premenopausal women. JAMA 1988;259:3137-3141.View Abstract
  • 186.Adlin EV, Maurer AH, Marks AD, Channick BJ. Bone mineral density in postmenopausal women treated with L-thyroxine. Am J Med 1991;90:360-366.View Abstract
  • 187.Kung AW, Pun KK. Bone mineral density in premenopausal women receiving long-term physiological doses of levothyroxine. JAMA1991;265:2688-2691.View Abstract
  • 188.Franklyn J, Betteridge J, Holder R et al. Bone mineral density in thyroxine treated females with or without a previous history of thyrotoxicosis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1994;41:425-432.
  • 189.Schneider DL, Barrett-Connor EL, Morton DJ. Thyroid hormone use and bone mineral density in elderly men. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:2005-2007.View Abstract
  • 190.Lopez Alvarez MB, Hawkins F, Rigopoulou D et al. [The risk factors and bone mineral density in women on long-term levothyroxine treatment]. Med Clin (Barc) 1999;112:85-89.View Abstract
  • 191.Schneyer CR. Calcium carbonate and reduction of levothyroxine efficacy. JAMA 1998;279:750.View Abstract
  • 192.Adams JF, Clark JS, Ireland JT et al. Malabsorption of vitamin B12 and intrinsic factor secretion during biguanide therapy. Diabetologia 1983;24:16-18.
  • 193.Caspary WF, Zavada I, Reimold W et al. Alteration of bile acid metabolism and vitamin-B12-absorption in diabetics on biguanides. Diabetologia 1977;13:187-193.View Abstract
  • 194.Carpentier JL, Bury J, Luyckx A, Lefebvre P. Vitamin B12 and folic acid serum levels in diabetics under various therapeutic regimens. Diabete Metab 1976;2:187-190.
  • 195.Carlsen SM, Folling I, Grill V et al. Metformin increases total serum homocysteine levels in non-diabetic male patients with coronary heart disease. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1997;57:521-527.View Abstract
  • 196.Wulffele MG, Kooy A, Lehert P et al. Effects of short-term treatment with metformin on serum concentrations of homocysteine, folate and vitamin B12 in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Intern Med 2003;254:455-463.View Abstract
  • 197.Bauman WA, Shaw S, Jayatilleke E et al. Increased intake of calcium reverses vitamin B12 malabsorption induced by metformin. Diabetes Care 2000;23:1227-1231.View Abstract
  • 198.Neuvonen PJ. Interactions with the absorption of tetracyclines. Drugs 1976;11:45-54.View Abstract
  • 199.Anti-infectives, tetracyclines. In: Threlkeld DS, ed. Facts and Comparisons Drug Information. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; December 1989:342b-342d.
  • 200.Jung H, Peregrina AA, Rodriguez JM, Moreno-Esparza R. The influence of coffee with milk and tea with milk on the bioavailability of tetracycline. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1997;18:459-463.View Abstract
  • 201.Lambs L, Brion M, Berthon G. Metal ion–tetracycline interactions in biological fluids. Part 3. Formation of mixed-metal ternary complexes of tetracycline, oxytetracycline, doxycycline and minocycline with calcium and magnesium, and their involvement in the bioavailability of these antibiotics in blood plasma. Agents Actions 1984;14:743-750.View Abstract
  • 202.Anti-infectives, antibiotics, tetracyclines. In: Olin BR, ed. Facts and Comparisons Drug Information. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; 1993:1811-1822.
  • 203.Vernillo AT, Rifkin BR. Effects of tetracyclines on bone metabolism. Adv Dent Res 1998;12:56-62.View Abstract
  • 204.Cohlan SQ, Bevelander G, Tiamsic T. Growth inhibition of prematures receiving tetracycline. Am J Dis Child 1966;105:453-461.
  • 205.Lemann J Jr, Gray RW, Maierhofer WJ, Cheung HS. Hydrochlorothiazide inhibits bone resorption in men despite experimentally elevated serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations. Kidney Int 1985;28:951-958.View Abstract
  • 206.Riis B, Christiansen C. Actions of thiazide on vitamin D metabolism: a controlled therapeutic trial in normal women early in the postmenopause. Metabolism 1985;34:421-424.View Abstract
  • 207.Diuretics and cardiovasculars, thiazides and related diuretics. In: Threlkeld DS, ed. Facts and Comparisons Drug Information. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; July 1993:135a-137c.
  • 208.Leppla D, Browne R, Hill K, Pak CY. Effect of amiloride with or without hydrochlorothiazide on urinary calcium and saturation of calcium salts. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983;57:920-924.
  • 209.Sakhaee K, Nicar MJ, Glass K et al. Reduction in intestinal calcium absorption by hydrochlorothiazide in postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984;59:1037-1043.View Abstract
  • 210.Rejnmark L, Mosekilde L, Andreasen F. [Diuretics and osteoporosis]. Nord Med 1998;113:53-59.View Abstract
  • 211.Schoofs MW, van der Klift M, Hofman A et al. Thiazide diuretics and the risk for hip fracture. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:476-482.View Abstract
  • 212.Parfitt AM. Chlorothiazide-induced hypercalcaemia in juvenile osteoporosis and hyperparathyroidism. N Engl J Med 1969;281:255.
  • 213.Hakim R, Tolis G, Goltzman D et al. Severe hypercalcemia associated with hydrochlorothiazide and calcium carbonate therapy. Can Med Assoc J 1979;121:591-594.View Abstract
  • 214.Drinka PJ, Nolten WE. Hazards of treating osteoporosis and hypertension concurrently with calcium, vitamin D, and distal diuretics. J Am Geriatr Soc 1984;32:405-407.View Abstract
  • 215.Crowe M, Wollner L, Griffiths RA. Hypercalcaemia following vitamin D and thiazide therapy in the elderly. Practitioner 1984;228:312-313.View Abstract
  • 216.Gora ML, Seth SK, Bay WH, Visconti JA. Milk-alkali syndrome associated with use of chlorothiazide and calcium carbonate. Clin Pharm 1989;8:227-229.View Abstract
  • 217.Werbach MR. Foundations of Nutritional Medicine. Tarzana, Calif: Third Line Press; 1997.
  • 218.Weiss AT, Lewis BS, Halon DA et al. The use of calcium with verapamil in the management of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Int J Cardiol 1983;4:275-284.View Abstract
  • 219.Haft JI, Habbab MA. Treatment of atrial arrhythmias: effectiveness of verapamil when preceded by calcium infusion. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:1085-1089.View Abstract
  • 220.Lerner U, Gustafson GT. Inhibition of 1α-hydroxy-vitamin D3 stimulated bone resorption in tissue culture by the calcium antagonist verapamil. Eur J Clin Invest 1982;12:185-190.View Abstract
  • 221.Fox J, Della-Santina CP. Oral verapamil and calcium and vitamin D metabolism in rats: effect of dietary calcium. Am J Physiol 1989;257:E632-E638.View Abstract
  • 222.Hulthen UL, Katzman PL. Renal effects of acute and long-term treatment with felodipine in essential hypertension. J Hypertens 1988;6:231-237.View Abstract
  • 223.Bar-Or D, Gasiel Y. Calcium and calciferol antagonise effect of verapamil in atrial fibrillation. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1981;282:1585-1586.View Abstract
  • 224.Barger-Lux MJ, Heaney RP. Caffeine and the calcium economy revisited. Osteoporos Int 1995;5:97-102.View Abstract
  • 225.Heaney RP, Recker RR. Effects of nitrogen, phosphorus, and caffeine on calcium balance in women. J Lab Clin Med 1982;99:46-55.View Abstract
  • 226.Massey LK, Wise KJ. The effect of dietary caffeine on urinary excretion of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in healthy young females. Nutr Res 1984;4:43-50.
  • 227.Massey LK, Hollingbery PW. Acute effects of dietary caffeine and sucrose on urinary mineral excretion of healthy adolescents. Nutr Res 1988;8:1005-1012.
  • 228.Bergman EA, Massey LK, Wise KJ, Sherrard DJ. Effects of dietary caffeine on renal handling of minerals in adult women. Life Sci 1990;47:557-564.View Abstract
  • 229.Kynast-Gales SA, Massey LK. Effect of caffeine on circadian excretion of urinary calcium and magnesium. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:467-472.View Abstract
  • 230.Hasling C, Sondergaard K, Charles P, Mosekilde L. Calcium metabolism in postmenopausal osteoporotic women is determined by dietary calcium and coffee intake. J Nutr 1992;122:1119-1126.View Abstract
  • 231.Harris SS, Dawson-Hughes B. Caffeine and bone loss in healthy postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60:573-578.View Abstract
  • 232.Frayha RA, Tabbara Z, Berbir N. Acute colchicine poisoning presenting as symptomatic hypocalcaemia. Br J Rheumatol 1984;23:292-295.View Abstract
  • 233.Ohya K, Ogura H. The effects of colchicine or vinblastine on the blood calcium level in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1993;248:111-119.View Abstract
  • 234.Niebergall PJ, Hussar DA, Cressman WA et al. Metal binding tendencies of various antibiotics. J Pharm Pharmacol 1966;18:729-738.
  • 235.Holt GA. Food and Drug Interactions.: Chicago: Precept Press; 1998.
  • 236.Sharma S, Vaidyanathan S, Thind SK et al. The effect of diclofenac sodium on urinary concentration of calcium, uric acid and glycosaminoglycans in traumatic paraplegics. Br J Urol 1991;68:240-242.View Abstract
  • 237.Miceli-Richard C, Le Bars M, Schmidely N, Dougados M. Paracetamol in osteoarthritis of the knee. Ann Rheum Dis 2004;63:923-930.View Abstract
  • 238.Kupfer S, Kosovsky JD. Effects of cardiac glycosides on renal tubular transport of calcium, magnesium, inorganic phosphate, and glucose in the dog. J Clin Invest 1965;44:1132-1143.View Abstract
  • 239.Sonnenblick M, Abraham AS, Meshulam Z, Eylath U. Correlation between manifestations of digoxin toxicity and serum digoxin, calcium, potassium, and magnesium concentrations and arterial pH. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1983;286:1089-1091.
  • 240.Bower J, Mengle HAK. The additive effects of calcium and digitalis: a warning with a report of two deaths. JAMA 1936;106:499.
  • 241.Nola GT, Pope S, Harrison DC. Assessment of the synergistic relationship between serum calcium and digitalis. Am Heart J 1970;79:499-507.
  • 242.Butterworth JF, Zaloga GP, Prielipp RC et al. Calcium inhibits the cardiac stimulating properties of dobutamine but not of amrinone. Chest 1992;101:174-180.View Abstract
  • 243.Barre PE, Gascon-Barre M, Meakins JL, Goltzman D. Hydroxychloroquine treatment of hypercalcemia in a patient with sarcoidosis undergoing hemodialysis. Am J Med 1987;82:1259-1262.View Abstract
  • 244.Caruso FS, Szabadi RR, Vukovich RA. Pharmacokinetics and clinical pharmacology of indapamide. Am Heart J 1983;106:212-220.View Abstract
  • 245.De Wildt DJ, Hillen FC. A comparative study on possible calcium antagonistic properties of indapamide and other drugs potentially interfering with calcium transport in isolated vascular smooth muscle. Eur J Pharmacol 1984;102:401-410.View Abstract
  • 246.Lemieux G. Treatment of idiopathic hypercalciuria with indapamide. CMAJ 1986;135:119-121.View Abstract
  • 247.Bataillard A, Schiavi P, Sassard J. Pharmacological properties of indapamide: rationale for use in hypertension. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999;37 Suppl 1:7-12.View Abstract
  • 248.Coombes RC, Neville AM, Bondy PK, Powles TJ. Failure of indomethacin to reduce hypercalcemia in patients with breast cancer. Prostaglandins 1976;12:1027-1035.View Abstract
  • 249.Brenner DE, Harvey HA, Lipton A, Demers L. A study of prostaglandin E2, parathormone, and response to indomethacin in patients with hypercalcemia of malignancy. Cancer 1982;49:556-561.View Abstract
  • 250.Gomaa AA, Hassan HA, Ghaneimah SA. Effect of aspirin and indomethacin on the serum and urinary calcium, magnesium and phosphate. Pharmacol Res 1990;22:59-70.View Abstract
  • 251.Garabedian-Ruffalo SM, Ruffalo RL. Drug and nutrient interactions. Am Fam Physician 1986;33:165-174.View Abstract
  • 252.Beermann B. Thiazides and loop-diuretics therapeutic aspects. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1986;707:75-78.View Abstract
  • 253.Davies DL, Lant AF, Millard NR et al. Renal action, therapeutic use, and pharmacokinetics of the diuretic bumetanide. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1974;15:141-155.View Abstract
  • 254.Ogawa K, Hatano T, Yamamoto M, Matsui N. Influence of acute diuresis on calcium balance—a comparative study of furosemide and azosemide. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1984;22:401-405.View Abstract
  • 255.Fujita T, Delea CS, Bartter FC. The effects of oral furosemide on the response of urinary excretion of cyclic adenosine monophosphate and phosphate to parathyroid extract in normal subjects. Nephron 1985;41:333-336.View Abstract
  • 256.Hergenroeder AC, Smith EO, Shypailo R et al. Bone mineral changes in young women with hypothalamic amenorrhea treated with oral contraceptives, medroxyprogesterone, or placebo over 12 months. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;176:1017-1025.View Abstract
  • 257.Merki-Feld GS, Neff M, Keller PJ. A 2-year prospective study on the effects of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate on bone mass-response to estrogen and calcium therapy in individual users. Contraception 2003;67:79-86.View Abstract
  • 258.Berenson AB, Breitkopf CR, Grady JJ et al. Effects of hormonal contraception on bone mineral density after 24 months of use. Obstet Gynecol 2004;103:899-906.View Abstract
  • 259.Clark JH, Russell GJ, Fitzgerald JF, Nagamori KE. Serum beta-carotene, retinol, and alpha-tocopherol levels during mineral oil therapy for constipation. Am J Dis Child 1987;141:1210-1212.
  • 260.Hanze S, Seyberth H. [Studies of the effect of the diuretics furosemide, ethacrynic acid and triamterene on renal magnesium and calcium excretion]. Klin Wochenschr 1967;45:313-314.View Abstract
  • 261.D’Arcy PF, Griffin, J.P. Iatrogenic Diseases. London: Oxford University Press; 1972.
  • 262.Stier CT Jr, Itskovitz HD. Renal calcium metabolism and diuretics. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1986;26:101-116.View Abstract
  • 263.Kindmark A, Rollman O, Mallmin H et al. Oral isotretinoin therapy in severe acne induces transient suppression of biochemical markers of bone turnover and calcium homeostasis. Acta Derm Venereol 1998;78:266-269.View Abstract
  • 264.Kato Y, Nishishita K, Sakai H et al. Hypocalcemic action of the several types of salicylic acid analogues. Shika Kiso Igakkai Zasshi 1989;31:89-94.View Abstract
  • 265.Ekstrand J, Spak CJ. Fluoride pharmacokinetics: its implications in the fluoride treatment of osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 1990;5 Suppl 1:S53-S61.View Abstract
  • 266.Deal CL. Osteoporosis: prevention, diagnosis, and management. Am J Med 1997;102:35S-39S.View Abstract
  • 267.Haguenauer D, Welch V, Shea B et al. Fluoride for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporotic fractures: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2000;11:727-738.View Abstract
  • 268.Vucelic B, Hadzic N, Gragas J, Puretic Z. Changes in serum phosphorus, calcium and alkaline phosphatase due to sucralfate. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1986;24:93-96.View Abstract
  • 269.Ramaswamy B, Shapiro CL. Osteopenia and osteoporosis in women with breast cancer. Semin Oncol 2003;30:763-775.View Abstract
  • 270.Ivanovich P, Fellows H, Rich C. The absorption of calcium carbonate. Ann Intern Med 1967;66:917-923.View Abstract
  • 271.Kruger MC, Horrobin DF. Calcium metabolism, osteoporosis and essential fatty acids: a review. Prog Lipid Res 1997;36:131-151.View Abstract
  • 272.Kruger MC, Coetzer H, de Winter R et al. Calcium, gamma-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation in senile osteoporosis. Aging (Milano) 1998;10:385-394.View Abstract
  • 273.Bassey EJ, Littlewood JJ, Rothwell MC, Pye DW. Lack of effect of supplementation with essential fatty acids on bone mineral density in healthy pre- and postmenopausal women: two randomized controlled trials of Efacal v. calcium alone. Br J Nutr 2000;83:629-635.View Abstract
  • 274.Hallberg L, Brune M, Erlandsson M et al. Calcium: effect of different amounts on nonheme- and heme-iron absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:112-119.View Abstract
  • 275.Dawson-Hughes B, Seligson FH, Hughes VA. Effects of calcium carbonate and hydroxyapatite on zinc and iron retention in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1986;44:83-88.View Abstract
  • 276.Cook JD, Dassenko SA, Whittaker P. Calcium supplementation: effect on iron absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:106-111.View Abstract
  • 277.Sturniolo GC, Montino MC, Rossetto L et al. Inhibition of gastric acid secretion reduces zinc absorption in man. J Am Coll Nutr 1991;10:372-375.View Abstract
  • 278.Sokoll LJ, Dawson-Hughes B. Calcium supplementation and plasma ferritin concentrations in premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;56:1045-1048.View Abstract
  • 279.Civitelli R, Villareal DT, Agnusdei D et al. Dietary I-lysine and calcium metabolism in humans. Nutrition 1992;8:400-405.View Abstract
  • 280.Flodin NW. The metabolic roles, pharmacology, and toxicology of lysine. J Am Coll Nutr 1997;16:7-21.View Abstract
  • 281.Ryder KM, Shorr RI, Bush AJ et al. Magnesium intake from food and supplements is associated with bone mineral density in healthy older white subjects. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005;53:1875-1880.View Abstract
  • 282.Norman DA, Fordtran JS, Brinkley LJ et al. Jejunal and ileal adaptation to alterations in dietary calcium: changes in calcium and magnesium absorption and pathogenetic role of parathyroid hormone and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. J Clin Invest 1981;67:1599-1603.View Abstract
  • 283.Lewis NM, Marcus MS, Behling AR, Greger JL. Calcium supplements and milk: effects on acid-base balance and on retention of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:527-533.View Abstract
  • 284.Andon MB, Ilich JZ, Tzagournis MA, Matkovic V. Magnesium balance in adolescent females consuming a low- or high-calcium diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63:950-953.View Abstract
  • 285.Zittermann A, Bock P, Drummer C et al. Lactose does not enhance calcium bioavailability in lactose-tolerant, healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:931-936.
  • 286.Lotz M, Zisman E, Bartter FC. Evidence for a phosphorus-depletion syndrome in man. N Engl J Med 1968;278:409-415.View Abstract
  • 287.Heaney RP. Protein intake and the calcium economy. J Am Diet Assoc 1993;93:1259-1260.View Abstract
  • 288.Calvo MS. Dietary considerations to prevent loss of bone and renal function. Nutrition 2000;16:564-566.View Abstract
  • 289.Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Calcium. Dietary Reference Intakes: Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1997.
  • 290.Heaney RP, Nordin BE. Calcium effects on phosphorus absorption: implications for the prevention and co-therapy of osteoporosis. J Am Coll Nutr 2002;21:239-244.View Abstract
  • 291.Zemel MB. Calcium utilization: effect of varying level and source of dietary protein. Am J Clin Nutr 1988;48:880-883.View Abstract
  • 292.Weaver CM, Proulx WR, Heaney R. Choices for achieving adequate dietary calcium with a vegetarian diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:543S-548S.View Abstract
  • 293.Feskanich D, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA. Protein consumption and bone fractures in women. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:472-479.View Abstract
  • 294.Schurch MA, Rizzoli R, Slosman D et al. Protein supplements increase serum insulin-like growth factor-I levels and attenuate proximal femur bone loss in patients with recent hip fracture: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1998;128:801-809.View Abstract
  • 295.Potter SM, Baum JA, Teng H et al. Soy protein and isoflavones: their effects on blood lipids and bone density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:1375S-1379S.View Abstract
  • 296.Weaver CM, Heaney RP. Calcium. In: Shils M, Olson JA, Shike M, Ross AC, eds. Nutrition in Health and Disease. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1999:141-145.View Abstract
  • 297.Devine A, Criddle RA, Dick IM et al. A longitudinal study of the effect of sodium and calcium intakes on regional bone density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62:740-745.View Abstract
  • 298.Dawson-Hughes B, Dallal GE, Krall EA et al. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on wintertime and overall bone loss in healthy postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med 1991;115:505-512.
  • 299.Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Krall EA, Dallal GE. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone density in men and women 65 years of age or older. N Engl J Med 1997;337:670-676.View Abstract
  • 300.Baeksgaard L, Andersen KP, Hyldstrup L. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation increases spinal BMD in healthy, postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 1998;8:255-260.View Abstract
  • 301.Avenell A, Handoll HHG. Nutritional supplementation for hip fracture aftercare in older people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; CD001880.
  • 302.Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med 2006;354:669-683.View Abstract
  • 303.Boonen S, Haentjens P, Vanderschueren D, Lips P. Fracture risk reduction with vitamin D supplementation requires additional calcium: evidence from a comparative meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2006;17:13.
  • 304.Vieth R, Chan PC, MacFarlane GD. Efficacy and safety of vitamin D3 intake exceeding the lowest observed adverse effect level. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73:288-294.View Abstract
  • 305.Heaney RP. Vitamin D, nutritional deficiency, and the medical paradigm. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:5107-5108.View Abstract
  • 306.Vieth R, Kimball S, Hu A, Walfish PG. Randomized comparison of the effects of the vitamin D3 adequate intake versus 100 mcg (4000 IU) per day on biochemical responses and the wellbeing of patients. Nutr J 2004;3:8.View Abstract
  • 307.Dawson-Hughes B, Heaney RP, Holick MF et al. Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos Int 2005;16:713-716.View Abstract
  • 308.Hollis BW. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. J Nutr 2005;135:317-322.View Abstract
  • 309.Holick MF. The vitamin D epidemic and its health consequences. J Nutr 2005;135:2739S-2748S.View Abstract
  • 310.Mocanu V, Stitt PA, Costan AR et al. Long term efficacy and safety of high vitamin D intakes as fortified bread. FASEB J 2005;19:A59.
  • 311.Raloff J. Bread and chocolate, no longer D-Minimus. Science News Online 2005;167.
  • 312.Lappe JM, Davies KM, Travers-Gustafson D, Heaney RP. Vitamin D status in a rural postmenopausal female population. J Am Coll Nutr 2006;25:395-402.View Abstract
  • 313.Whiting SJ, Calvo MS. Overview of the proceedings from Experimental Biology 2005 symposium. Optimizing Vitamin D Intake for Populations with Special Needs: Barriers to Effective Food Fortification and Supplementation. J Nutr 2006;136:1114-1116.View Abstract
  • 314.Holick MF. Resurrection of vitamin D deficiency and rickets. J Clin Invest 2006;116:2062-2072.View Abstract
  • 315.Holick MF. High prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy and implications for health. Mayo Clin Proc 2006;81:353-373.View Abstract
  • 316.Vieth R. Critique of the considerations for establishing the tolerable upper intake level for vitamin D: critical need for revision upwards. J Nutr 2006;136:1117-1122.View Abstract
  • 317.Heaney RP. Barriers to optimizing vitamin D3 intake for the elderly. J Nutr 2006;136:1123-1125.View Abstract
  • 318.Pecoud A, Donzel P, Schelling JL. Effect of foodstuffs on the absorption of zinc sulfate. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1975;17:469-474.View Abstract
  • 319.Spencer H, Kramer L, Norris C, Osis D. Effect of calcium and phosphorus on zinc metabolism in man. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:1213-1218.View Abstract
  • 320.Hwang SJ, Lai YH, Chen HC, Tsai JH. Comparisons of the effects of calcium carbonate and calcium acetate on zinc tolerance test in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 1992;19:57-60.View Abstract
  • 321.Spencer H, Norris C, Osis D. Further studies of the effect of zinc on intestinal absorption of calcium in man. J Am Coll Nutr 1992;11:561-566.
  • 322.Argiratos V, Samman S. The effect of calcium carbonate and calcium citrate on the absorption of zinc in healthy female subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48:198-204.View Abstract
  • 323.Wood RJ, Zheng JJ. High dietary calcium intakes reduce zinc absorption and balance in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:1803-1809.View Abstract
  • .[No author listed.] Actonel [package insert]. Cincinnati Procter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals; 1998.
  • .[No author listed.] Drug evaluations subscription. Vol II, Section 10. Chicago: American Medical Association;1993.
  • .[No author listed.] Preliminary findings suggest calcium citrate supplements may raise aluminum levels in blood, urine. Fam Pract News 1992;22:74-75.
  • .Aarskog D, Aksnes L, Lehmann V. Low 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in heparin-induced osteopenia. Lancet 1980;2(8195 Pt 1):650-651. (Letter)
  • .Abrams SA. Calcium supplementation during childhood: long-term effects on bone mineralization. Nutr Rev 2005;63(7):251-255.
  • .Abrams SA. Calcium turnover and nutrition through the life cycle. Proc Nutr Soc 2001;60(2):283-289.
  • .Abrams SA, Griffin IJ, Hawthorne KM, et al. A combination of prebiotic short- and long-chain inulin-type fructans enhances calcium absorption and bone mineralization in young adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82(2):471-476.
  • .Adler RA, Rosen CJ. Glucocorticoids and osteoporosis. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1999;23:641-654.
  • .Allender PS, Cutler JA, Follmann D, et al. Dietary calcium and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Ann Intern Med 1996;124(9):825-831.
  • .Aloia JF, Talwar SA, Pollack S, et al. A randomized controlled trial of vitamin D3 supplementation in African American women. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1618-1623.
  • .Ames SK, Gorham BM, Abrams SA. Effects of high compared with low calcium intake on calcium absorption and incorporation of iron by red blood cells in small children. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70(1):44-48.
  • .Amin S, Zhang Y, Felson DT, et al. Estradiol, testosterone, and the risk for hip fractures in elderly men from the Framingham Study. Am J Med 2006;119(5):426-433.
  • .Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure: DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 1997;336(16):1117-1124.
  • .Auld G, Boushey CJ, Bock MA, et al. Perspectives on intake of calcium-rich foods among Asian, Hispanic, and white preadolescent and adolescent females. J Nutr Educ Behav 2002;34(5):242-251.
  • .Baeksgaard L, Andersen KP, Hyldstrup L. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation increases spinal BMD in healthy, postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 1998;8:255-260.
  • .Barger-Lux MJ, Heaney RP. Effects of above average summer sun exposure on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and calcium absorption. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87(11):4952-4956.
  • .Barger-Lux MJ, Heaney RP, Stegman MR. Effects of moderate caffeine intake on the calcium economy of premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52(4):722-725.
  • .Barilla DE, Notz C, Kennedy D, et al. Renal oxalate excretion following oral oxalate loads in patients with ileal disease and with renal and absorptive hypercalciurias: effect of calcium and magnesium. Am J Med 1978;64:579-585.
  • .Baron JA, Beach M, Mandel JS, et al. Calcium supplements and colorectal adenomas: Polyp Prevention Study Group. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999;889:138-145.
  • .Baron JA, Beach M, Mandel JS, et al. Calcium supplements for the prevention of colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 1999;340:101-107.
  • .Baron JA, Tosteson TD, Wargovich MJ, et al. Calcium supplementation and rectal mucosal proliferation: a randomized controlled trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:1303-1307.
  • .Belizan JM, Villar J, Gonzalez L, et al. Calcium supplementation to prevent hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1991;325(20):1399-1405.
  • .Bell L, Halstenson CE, Halstenson CJ, et al. Cholesterol-lowering effects of calcium carbonate in patients with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia. Arch Intern Med 1992;152(12):2441-2444.
  • .Bell RD, Pak CY, Zerwekh J, et al. Effect of phenytoin on bone and vitamin D metabolism. Ann Neurol 1979;5(4):374-378.
  • .Bendich A. The potential for dietary supplements to reduce premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19(1);3-12. (Review)
  • .Birkett NJ. Comments on a meta-analysis of the relation between dietary calcium intake and blood pressure. Am J Epidemiol 1998;148(3):223-228; discussion 232-223.
  • .Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Conzelmann M, Dick W, et al. [Effect of vitamin D on muscle strength and relevance in regard to osteoporosis prevention.] Z Rheumatol 2003;62(6):518-521. [German]
  • .Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Orav EJ, Dawson-Hughes B. Effect of cholecalciferol plus calcium on falling in ambulatory older men and women: a 3-year randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:424-430.
  • .Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Zhang Y, Kiel DP, et al. Positive association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and bone density in osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2005;53(6):821-826.
  • .Blanch J, Pros A. Calcium as a treatment of osteoporosis. Drugs Today 1999;35:631-639.
  • .Bo-Linn GW, Davis GR, Buddrus DJ, et al. An evaluation of the importance of gastric acid secretion in the absorption of dietary calcium. J Clin Invest 1984;73(3):640-647.
  • .Bolsin S, Jones S. Acute renal failure potentiated by gentamicin and calcium. Anaesth Intensive Care 1997;25(4):431-432. (Letter)
  • .Bonithon-Kopp C, Kronborg O, Giacosa A, et al. Calcium and fibre supplementation in prevention of colorectal adenoma recurrence: a randomised intervention trial: European Cancer Prevention Organisation Study Group. Lancet 2000;356(9238):1300-1306.
  • .Bonjour J-P, Carrie AL, Ferrari S, et al. Calcium-enriched foods and bone mass growth in prepubertal girls: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Invest 1997;99:1287-1294.
  • .Boonen S, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Cooper C, et al. Addressing the musculoskeletal components of fracture risk with calcium and vitamin D: a review of the evidence. Calcif Tissue Int 2006;78(5):257-270. (Review)
  • .Boonen S, Haentjens P, Vanderschueren D, et al. Fracture risk reduction with vitamin d supplementation requires additional calcium: evidence from a comparative meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2006;17(Suppl 2):13. (Meta-analysis)
  • .Bostick R. Diet and nutrition in the prevention of colon cancer. In: Bendich A, Deckelbaum RJ, eds. Preventive nutrition: the comprehensive guide for health professionals. 2nd ed. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, Inc; 2001:57-95.
  • .Bostick RM, Fosdick L, Grandits GA, et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on serum cholesterol and blood pressure. Arch Fam Med 2000;9:31-39.
  • .Bostick RM, Fosdick L, Wood JR, et al. Calcium and colorectal epithelial cell proliferation in sporadic adenoma patients: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:1307-1315.
  • .Bostick RM, Kushi LH, Wu Y, et al. Relation of calcium, vitamin D, and dairy food intake to ischemic heart disease mortality among postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 1999;149:151-161.
  • .Brazier M, Kamel S, Lorget F, et al. Biological effects of supplementation with vitamin D and calcium in postmenopausal women with low bone mass receiving alendronate. Clin Drug Invest 2002;22(12):849-857.
  • .Brody T. Nutritional biochemistry. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press; 1999.
  • .Bruening K, Kemp FW, Simone N, et al. Dietary calcium intakes of urban children at risk of lead poisoning. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107(6):431-435.
  • .Bryant RJ, Cadogan J, Weaver CM. The new dietary reference intakes for calcium: implications for osteoporosis. J Am Coll Nutr 1999;18:406S-412S.
  • .Bucher HC, Cook RJ, Guyatt GH, et al. Effects of dietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 1996;275:1016-1022.
  • .Bucher HC, Guyatt GH, Cook RJ, et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on pregnancy induced hypertension and preeclampsia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 1996;275:1113-1117.
  • .Buist RA. Drug-nutrient interactions: an overview. Int Clin Nutr Rev 1984;4(3):114. (Review)
  • .Burgess E, Lewanczuk R, Bolli P, et al. Recommendations on potassium, magnesium and calcium. CMAJ 1999;160:S35-S45.
  • .Burros M. Testing calcium supplements for lead. New York Times,Jun 4, 1997, B7.
  • .Burtis WJ, Gay L, Insogna KL, et al. Dietary hypercalciuria in patients with calcium oxalate kidney stones. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60(3):424-429.
  • .Cadogan J, Eastell R, Jones M, et al. A study of bone growth in adolescents: the effect of an 18-month, milk-based dietary intervention. Br Med J 1997;315:1255-1260.
  • .Calvo MS. Dietary considerations to prevent loss of bone and renal function. Nutrition 2000;16(7-8):564-566.
  • .Camici M. Dialysis-associated bone disease. JAMA 1986;256(11):1447. (Letter)
  • .Cappuccio FP, Siani A, Strazzullo P. Oral calcium supplementation and blood pressure: an overview of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens 1989;7(12):941-946. (Review)
  • .Cardona PD. Drug-food interactions. Nutr Hosp 1999;14(Suppl 2):129S-140S. [Spanish]
  • .Cashman K, Flynn A. Optimal nutrition: calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Proc Nutr Soc 1999;58:477-487.
  • .Cats A, Kleibeuker JH, van der Meer R, et al. Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled intervention study with supplemental calcium in families with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:598-603.
  • .Celotti F, Bignamini A. Dietary calcium and mineral/vitamin supplementation: a controversial problem. J Int Med Res 1999;27(1):1-14. (Review)
  • .Chan JM, Gann PH, Giovannucci EL. Role of diet in prostate cancer development and progression. J Clin Oncol 2005;23(32):8152-8160.
  • .Chan JM, Giovannucci EL. Dairy products, calcium, and vitamin D and risk of prostate cancer. Epidemiol Rev 2001;23(1):87-92.
  • .Chan GM, Hoffman K, McMurry M. Effects of dairy products on bone and body composition in pubertal girls. J Pediatr 1995;126(4):551-556.
  • .Chan JM, Stampfer MJ, Ma J, et al. Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk in the Physicians’ Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74(4):549-554.
  • .Chapuy MC, Arlot ME, Duboeuf F, et al. Vitamin D and calcium to prevent hip fractures in elderly women. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1637-1642.
  • .Chapuy MC, Preziosi P, Maamer M, et al. Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in an adult normal population. Osteoporos Int 1997;7:439-443.
  • .Chevalley T,Rizzoli R, Nydegger V, et al. The effects of calcium supplements on femoral bone mineral density and vertebral fracture rate in vitamin D replete elderly patients. Osteoporosis Int 1994;4:245-252.
  • .Christiansen C, Rodbro P, Lund M. Incidence of anticonvulsant osteomalacia and effect of vitamin D: controlled therapeutic trial. Br Med J 1973;4(894):695-701.
  • .Chung S, Ahn C. Effects of anti-epileptic drug therapy on bone mineral density in ambulatory epileptic children. Brain Dev 1994;16(5):382-385.
  • .Carpenter TO, Delucia MC, Zhang JH, et al. A randomized controlled study of effects of dietary magnesium oxide supplementation on bone mineral content in healthy girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91(12):4866-4872.
  • .Cleghorn DB, O’Loughlin PD, Schroeder BJ, Nordin BE. An open, crossover trial of calcium-fortified milk in prevention of early postmenopausal bone loss. Med J Aust 2001;175(5):242-245.
  • .Collins N, Maher J, Cole M, et al. A prospective study to evaluate the dose of vitamin D required to correct low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels, calcium, and alkaline phosphatase in patients at risk of developing antiepileptic drug-induced osteomalacia. Q J Med 1991;78(286):113-122.
  • .Conlin PR, Chow D, Miller ER III, et al. The effect of dietary patterns on blood pressure control in hypertensive patients: results from the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) trial. Am J Hypertens 2000;13(9):949-955.
  • .Consensus Opinion. The role of calcium in peri- and postmenopausal women: consensus opinion of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2001;8:84-95.
  • .Cumming RG, Nevitt MC. Calcium for prevention of osteoporotic fractures in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 1997;12(9):1321-1329.
  • .Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, et al. A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. N Engl J Med 1993;328(12):833-838.
  • .Curhan GC, Willett WC, Speizer FE, et al. Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Ann Intern Med 1997;126(7):497-504.
  • .Dahlman T, Lindvall N, Hellgren M. Osteopenia in pregnancy during long-term heparin treatment: a radiological study post partum. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97(3):221-228.
  • .Davies DL, Lant AF, Millard NR, et al. Renal action, therapeutic use, and pharmacokinetics of the diuretic bumetanide. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1974;15:141-155.
  • .Dawson-Hughes B, Heaney RP, Holick MF, et al. Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos Int 2005;16:713-716.
  • .Davies KM, Heaney RP, Recker RR, et al. Calcium intake and body weight. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 2000;85(12):4635-4638.
  • .Dawson-Hughes B. Calcium supplementation and bone loss: a review of controlled clinical trials. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54(1 Suppl):274S-280S. (Review)
  • .Dawson-Hughes B, Dallal GE, Krall EA, et al. A controlled trial of the effect of calcium supplementation on bone density in post-menopausal women. N Engl J Med 1990;323:878-883.
  • .Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Krall EA, et al. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone density in men and women 65 years of age or older. N Engl J Med 1997;337(10):670-676.
  • .D’Erasmo E, Ragno A, Raejntroph N, et al. [Drug-induced osteomalacia.] Recenti Prog Med 1998;89(10):529-533. [Italian] (Review)
  • .Devine A, Criddle RA, Dick IM, et al. A longitudinal study of the effect of sodium and calcium intakes on regional bone density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62(4):740-745.
  • .Dodiuk-Gad RP, Rozen GS, Rennert G, et al. Sustained effect of short-term calcium supplementation on bone mass in adolescent girls with low calcium intake. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81(1):168-174.
  • .Domrongkitchaiporn S, Ongphiphadhanakul B, Stitchantrakul W, et al. Risk of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis after calcium or combined calcium and calcitriol supplementation in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 2000;11(6):486-492.
  • .Domrongkitchaiporn S, Stitchantrakul W, Kochakarn W. Causes of hypocitraturia in recurrent calcium stone formers: focusing on urinary potassium excretion. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48(4):546-554.
  • .Earnshaw SA, Worley A, Hosking DJ. Current diet does not relate to bone mineral density after the menopause: the Nottingham Early Postmenopausal Intervention Cohort (EPIC) Study Group. Br J Nutr 1997;78:65-72.
  • .Elliott WC, Patchin DS. Effects and interactions of gentamicin, polyaspartic acid and diuretics on urine calcium concentration. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1995;273(1):280-284.
  • .Elmarsafawy SF, Jain NB, Schwartz J, et al. Dietary calcium as a potential modifier of the relationship of lead burden to blood pressure. Epidemiology 2006;17(5):531-537.
  • .Fenech M, Baghurst P, Luderer W, et al. Low intake of calcium, folate, nicotinic acid, vitamin E, retinol, beta-carotene and high intake of pantothenic acid, biotin and riboflavin are significantly associated with increased genome instability: results from a dietary intake and micronucleus index survey in South Australia. Carcinogenesis 2005;26(5):991-999.
  • .Feskanich D, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Calcium, vitamin D, milk consumption, and hip fractures: a prospective study among postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77(2):504-511.
  • .Finkelstein JS. Calcium plus vitamin D for postmenopausal women: bone appetit? N Engl J Med 2006;354(7):750-752. (Editorial)
  • .Fleisch HA. Bisphosphonates: preclinical aspects and use in osteoporosis. Ann Med 1997;29(1):55-62.
  • .Forman MR, Levin B. Calcium plus vitamin D3 supplementation and colorectal cancer in women. N Engl J Med 2006;354(7):752-754. (Editorial)
  • .Foss MC, Meneghelli UG, Verissimo JM. The effect of the anticonvulsants phenobarbital and diphenylhydantoin on intestinal absorption of calcium. Acta Physiol LatinAm 1979;29(4-5):223-228.
  • .Franklyn JA, Betteridge J, Daykin J, et al. Long-term thyroxine treatment and bone mineral density. Lancet 1992;340(8810):9-13.
  • .Fujita T, Ohue T, Fujii Y, et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on bone density and parathyroid function in elderly subjects. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1995;21(1-3):229-231.
  • .Gage BF, Birman-Deych E, Radford MJ, et al. Risk of osteoporotic fracture in elderly patients taking warfarin: results from the National Registry of Atrial Fibrillation. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:241-246.
  • .Gao X, Lavalley MP, Tucker KL. Prospective studies of dairy product and calcium intakes and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(23):1768-1777.
  • .Galloe AM, Graudal N, Moller J, et al. Effect of oral calcium supplementation on blood pressure in patients with hypertension: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. J Hum Hypertens 1993;7:43-45.
  • .Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED. Calcium and vitamin D: their potential roles in colon and breast cancer prevention. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999;889:107-119.
  • .Gennari C. Calcium and vitamin D nutrition and bone disease of the elderly. Public Health Nutr 2001;4(2B):547-559. (Review)
  • .Ghishan FK, Walker F, Meneely R, et al. Intestinal calcium transport: effect of cimetidine. J Nutr 1981;111(12):2157-2161.
  • .Gonnelli S, Cepollaro C, Pondrelli C, et al. Bone turnover and the response to alendronate treatment in postmenopausal osteoporosis.Calcif Tissue Int 1999;65(5):359-364.
  • .Gong G, Johnson ML, Barger-Lux MJ, et al. Association of bone dimensions with a parathyroid hormone gene polymorphism in women. Osteoporos Int 1999;9(4):307-311.
  • .Gonzalez AJ, White E, Kristal A, et al. Calcium intake and 10-year weight change in middle-aged adults. J Am Diet Assoc 2006;106(7):1066-1073.
  • .Gordon CM, Nelson LM. Amenorrhea and bone health in adolescents and young women. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2003;15(5):377-384. (Review)
  • .Gorres B, Hollis B, et al. Low vitamin D status in rural and older populations with high body fat. Experimental Biology 2005 Meeting. San Diego, Apr 2, 2005.
  • .Gough H, Goggin T, Bissessar A, et al. A comparative study of the relative influence of different anticonvulsant drugs, UV exposure and diet on vitamin D and calcium metabolism in out-patients with epilepsy. Q J Med 1986;59(230):569-577.
  • .Grant AM, Avenell A, Campbell MK, et al. Oral vitamin D3 and calcium for secondary prevention of low-trauma fractures in elderly people (Randomised Evaluation of Calcium Or vitamin D, RECORD): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2005;365(9471):1621-1628.
  • .Greenspan SL, Greenspan FS, Resnick NM, et al. Skeletal integrity in premenopausal and postmenopausal women receiving long-term L-thyroxine therapy. Am J Med 1991;91(1):5-14.
  • .Greer FR, Krebs NF; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition: optimizing bone health and calcium intakes of infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics 2006;117(2):578-585.
  • .Griffith LE, Guyatt GH, Cook RJ, et al. The influence of dietary and nondietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure: an updated metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Hypertens 1999;12(1 Pt 1):84-92.
  • .Grinder-Pedersen L, Bukhave K, Jensen M, et al. Calcium from milk or calcium-fortified foods does not inhibit nonheme-iron absorption from a whole diet consumed over a 4-d period. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:404-409.
  • .Grobbee DE, Hofman A. Effect of calcium supplementation on diastolic blood pressure in young people with mild hypertension. Lancet 1986;2:703-707.
  • .Gulson BL, Mizon KJ, Palmer JM, et al. Contribution of lead from calcium supplements to blood lead. Environ Health Perspect 2001;109(3):283-288.
  • .Hachulla E, Cortet B. [Prevention of glucocorticoid induced osteoporosis.] Rev Med Interne 1998;19(7):492-500. [French]
  • .Hamid Z, et al. Vitamin D deficiency in nursing home residents: need to adhere to current recommendations. Abstract C126. American Geriatrics Society 2005 Annual Meeting: Orlando, May 13, 2005.
  • .Hammarstrom L. [Side-effects on bone and teeth of the tetracyclines.] Lakartidningen 1968;65(Suppl 2):89-96. [Swedish]
  • .Hanna FW, Pettit RJ, Ammari F, et al. Effect of replacement doses of thyroxine on bone mineral density. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998;48(2):229-234.
  • .Hardman JG, Gilman AG, Limbird LE, eds. Goodman and Gilman’s pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:839-874.
  • .Hartard M, Bottermann P, Bartenstein P, et al. Effects on bone mineral density of low-dosed oral contraceptives compared to and combined with physical activity. Contraception 1997;55(2):87-90.
  • .Hathcock JN. Metabolic mechanisms of drug-nutrient interactions. Fed Proc 1985;44(1):124-129. (Review)
  • .Heaney RP. BMD: the problem. Osteoporos Int 2005;16:1013-1015.
  • .Heaney RP. Calcium, dairy products and osteoporosis. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19(2 Suppl):83S-99S.
  • .Heaney RP. Calcium supplements: practical considerations. Osteoporos Int 1991;1(2):65-71.
  • .Heaney RP. Lead in calcium supplements: cause for alarm or celebration? JAMA 2000;284(11):1432-1433. (Editorial)
  • .Heaney RP. Phosphorus nutrition and the treatment of osteoporosis. Mayo Clin Proc 2004;79(1):91-97. (Review)
  • .Heaney RP. Vitamin D, nutritional deficiency, and the medical paradigm. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88(11):5107-5108. (Review)
  • .Heaney RP, Bachmann GA. Interpreting studies of nutritional prevention: aperspective using calcium as a model. J Women’s Health 2005;14:990-897.
  • .Heaney RP, Dowell SD, Bierman J, et al. Absorbability and cost effectiveness in calcium supplementation. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20(3):239-246.
  • .Heaney RP, Dowell MS, Hale CA, et al. Calcium absorption varies within the reference range for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. J Am Coll Nutr 2003;22(2):142-146.
  • .Heaney RP, Draper MW. Raloxifene and estrogen: comparative bone-remodeling kinetics. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82(10):3425-3429.
  • .Heaney RP, Magowan S, Zhous S. Prevalence of low calcium intake in postmenopausal osteoporotic women: the need for supplementation. Abstract M276. American Society of Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) 27th Annual Meeting. Nashville, Sep 26, 2005.
  • .Heaney RP, Rafferty K, Dowell MS, et al. Calcium fortification systems differ in bioavailability. J Am Diet Assoc 2005;105(5):807-809.
  • .Heaney RP, Recker RR, Weaver CM. Absorbability of calcium sources: the limited role of solubility. Calcif Tissue Int 1990;46:300-304.
  • .Heaney RP, Weaver CM. Calcium and vitamin D. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2003;32(1):181-94,vii-viii. (Review)
  • .Heller HJ. The role of calcium in the prevention of kidney stones. J Am Coll Nutr 1999;18(5 Suppl):373S-378S.
  • .Hendler SS, Rorvik DR, eds. PDR for nutritional supplements. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Company, Inc; 2001.
  • .Hermensen K. Diet, blood pressure and hypertension. Br J Nutr 2000;83(Suppl 1):S113-S119.
  • .Hertz-Picciotto I, Schramm M, Watt-Morse M, et al. Patterns and determinants of blood lead during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 2000;152(9):829-837.
  • .Hines Burnham T, et al, eds. Drug facts and comparisons. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; 2000.
  • .Hofstad B, Almendigen K, Vatn M, et al. Growth and recurrence of colorectal polyps: a double-blind 3-year intervention with calcium and antioxidants. Digestion 1998;59:148-156.
  • .Holick MF. High prevalence and clinical implications of vitamin D inadequacy. Mayo Clin Proc 2006;81(3):353-373. (Review)
  • .Holick MF. The parathyroid hormone D-lema. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88(8):3499-3500. (Comment)
  • .Holick MF. PTH (1-34): a novel anabolic drug for the treatment of osteoporosis. South Med J 2005;98(11):1114-1117. (Review)
  • .Holick MF. The vitamin D epidemic and its health consequences. J Nutr 2005;135(11):2739S-2748S.
  • .Holick MF. Vitamin D. In: Shils M, Olson JA, Shike M, et al, eds. Nutrition in health and disease. 9th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1999:329-345.
  • .Holick MF. Vitamin D: a millenium perspective. J Cell Biochem 2003;88(2):296-307. (Review)
  • .Holick MF. Vitamin D: Important for prevention of osteoporosis, cardiovascular heart disease, type 1 diabetes, autoimmune diseases, and some cancers. South Med J 2005;98(10):1024-1027. (Review)
  • .Holick MF. Vitamin D: photobiology, metabolism, mechanism of action, and clinical applications. In: Primer on the metabolic bone diseases and disorders of mineral metabolism. In Murray F,ed. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999:92-98.
  • .Holick MF. Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:362-371. (Review)
  • .Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency: what a pain it is. Mayo Clin Proc 2003;78(12):1457-1459. (Comment)
  • .Holick MF, Krane SM, Potts JT. Calcium, phosphorus, and bone metabolism: calcium-regulating hormones. In: Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, et al, eds. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Health Professional Division; 1998:2221-2222.
  • .Hollis BW. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. J Nutr 2005;135:317-322.
  • .Holt GA. Food and drug interactions. Chicago: Precept Press;1998.
  • .Holt PR. Dairy foods and prevention of colon cancer: human studies. J Am Coll Nutr 1999;18(Suppl 5):379S-391S.
  • .Homa ST, Carroll J, Swann K. The role of calcium in mammalian oocyte maturation and egg activation. Hum Reprod 1993;8:1274-1281.
  • .Hudson JQ, Small RE, Buckley L. Perceptions of pharmacists about adverse effects of corticosteroid therapy: focus on osteoporosis. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash) 1998;38(6):710-716.
  • .Humes HD, Sastrasinh M, Weinberg JM. Calcium is a competitive inhibitor of gentamicin-renal membrane binding interactions and dietary calcium supplementation protects against gentamicin nephrotoxicity. J Clin Invest 1984;73(1):134-147.
  • .Hyman J, Baron JA, Dain BJ, et al. Dietary and supplemental calcium and the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998;7:291-295.
  • .Ikeda Y, Takemoto F. [Serum calcium concentration and the safety of vitamin D therapy.] Clin Calcium 2004;14(9):79-82. [Japanese] (Review)
  • .Ilich JZ, Kerstetter JE. Nutrition in bone health revisited: a story beyond calcium. J Am Coll NutrĀ  2000;19(6):715-737. (Review)
  • .Iso H, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Prospective study of calcium, potassium, and magnesium intake and risk of stroke in women. Stroke 1999;30(9):1772-1779.
  • .Iso H, Terao A, Kitamura A. Calcium intake and blood pressure in seven Japanese populations. Am J Epidemiol 1991;133:776-783.
  • .Iivanainen M, Savolainen H. Side effects of phenobarbital and phenytoin during long-term treatment of epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 1983;97:49-67.
  • .Jackson KA, Savaiano DA. Lactose maldigestion, calcium intake and osteoporosis in African-, Asian-, and Hispanic-Americans. J Am Coll NutrĀ  2001;20(2 Suppl):198S-207S. (Review)
  • .Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med 2006;354(7):669-683. Erratum in N Engl J Med. 2006;354(10):1102.
  • .Jameson SJ, Hargarten SW. Calcium pretreatment to prevent verapamil-induced hypotension in patients with SVT. Ann Emerg Med 1992;21(1):68. (Editorial)
  • .Jänne PA, Mayer RJ. Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2000;342(26):1960-1968.
  • .Jarjou LMA, Prentice A, Sawo Y, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled, calcium supplementation study in pregnant Gambian women: effects on breast-milk calcium concentrations and infant birth weight, growth, and bone mineral accretion in the first year of life. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:657-666.
  • .Johnston CC, Miller JZ, Slemenda CW, et al. Calcium supplementation and increases in bone mineral density in children. N Engl J Med 1992;327:82-87.
  • .Joint National Committee. Sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Int Med 1997;157:2413-2446.
  • .Jones G, Sambrook PN. Drug-induced disorders of bone metabolism. incidence, management and avoidance. Drug Saf 1994;10(6):480-489.
  • .Jorde R, Sundsfjord J, Haug E, et al. Relation between low calcium intake, parathyroid hormone, and blood pressure. Hypertension 2000;35(5):1154-1159.
  • .Kampman E, Slattery ML, Caan B, et al. Calcium, vitamin D, sunshine exposure, dairy products and colon cancer risk (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2000;11:459-466.
  • .Kaufman M, Homa ST. Defining a role for calcium in the resumption and progression of meiosis in the pig oocyte. J Exp Zool 1993;265:69-76.
  • .Kawano Y,Yoshimi H, Matsuoka H, et al. Calcium supplementation in patients with essential hypertension: assessment by office, home and ambulatory blood pressure. J Hypertens 1998;16:1693-1699.
  • .Kearney J, Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, et al.  Calcium, vitamin D, and dairy foods and the occurrence of colon cancer in men. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143(9):907-917.
  • .Kelman A, Lane NE. The management of secondary osteoporosis. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2005;19(6):1021-1037.
  • .Kesse E, Boutron-Ruault MC, Norat T, et al. Dietary calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D, dairy products and the risk of colorectal adenoma and cancer among French women of the E3N-EPIC prospective study. Int J Cancer 2005;117(1):137-144.
  • .Kinjo M, Setoguchi S, Schneeweiss S, et al. Bone mineral density in subjects using central nervous system-active medications. Am J Med 2005;118(12):1414.
  • .Kirschmann GJ, Kirschmann JD, eds. Nutrition almanac. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996.
  • .Kosek JC, Mazze RI, Cousins MJ. Nephrotoxicity of gentamicin. Lab Invest 1974;30(1):48-57.
  • .Krall EA, Wehler C, Garcia RI, et al. Calcium and vitamin D supplements reduce tooth loss in the elderly. Am J Med 2001;111(6):452-456.
  • .Krauss RM, Eckel RH, Howard B, et al. AHA dietary guidelines: revision 2000: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. Circulation 2000;102:2284-2299.
  • .Kuhn M, Schriger DL. Low-dose calcium pretreatment to prevent verapamil-induced hypotension. Am Heart J 1992;124(1):231-232.
  • .Kulier R, de Onis M, Gulmezoglu AM, et al. Nutritional interventions for the prevention of maternal morbidity. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1998;63(3):231-246.
  • .Kung AW, Lorentz T, Tam SC. Thyroxine suppressive therapy decreases bone mineral density in post-menopausal women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1993;39(5):535-540.
  • .Lanou AJ, Berkow SE, Barnard ND. Calcium, dairy products, and bone health in children and young adults: a reevaluation of the evidence. Pediatrics 2005;115(3):736-743. (Review)
  • .Larsson SC, Bergkvist L, Rutegard J, et al. Calcium and dairy food intakes are inversely associated with colorectal cancer risk in the Cohort of Swedish Men. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:667-673.
  • .Larsson SC, Bergkvist L, Wolk A. High-fat dairy food and conjugated linoleic acid intakes in relation to colorectal cancer incidence in the Swedish Mammography Cohort. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82(4):894-900.
  • .Lau EM, Woo J, Lam V, Hong A. Milk supplementation of the diet of postmenopausal Chinese women on a low calcium intake retards bone loss. J Bone Miner Res 2001;16(9):1704-1709.
  • .Lee WTK, Leung SSF, Leung DM, et al. A randomised double-blind controlled calcium supplementation trial and bone and height acquisition in children. Br J Nutr 1995;74:125-139.
  • .Leedman PJ, Stein AR, Chin WW, et al. Thyroid hormone modulates the interaction between iron regulatory proteins and the ferritin mRNA iron-responsive element. J Biol Chem 1996;271(20):12017-12023.
  • .Lespessailles E, Poupon S, Adriambelosoa N, et al. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: is the bone density decrease the only explanation? Joint Bone Spine 2000;67(2):119-126.
  • .Levenson DI, Bockman RS. A review of calcium preparations. Nutr Rev 1994;52(7):221-232. Erratum in Nutr Rev 1994;52(10):364. (Review)
  • .Levine RJ, Hauth JC, Curet LB, et al. Trial of calcium to prevent preeclampsia. N Engl J Med 1997;337(2):69-76.
  • .Li RC, Lo KN, Lam JS, et al. Effects of order of magnesium exposure on the postantibiotic effect and bactericidal activity of ciprofloxacin. J Chemother 1999;11(4):243-247.
  • .Liebman M, Chai W. Effect of dietary calcium on urinary oxalate excretion after oxalate loads. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65(5):1453-1459.
  • .Lim D, McKay M. Food-drug interactions: drug information bulletin. UCLA Dept Pharm Serv 1995;15(2). (Review)
  • .Lin PH, Ginty F, Appel LJ, et al. The DASH diet and sodium reduction improve markers of bone turnover and calcium metabolism in adults. J Nutr 2003;133(10):3130-3136.
  • .Lin YC, Lyle RM, McCabe LD, et al. Dairy calcium is related to changes in body composition during a two-year exercise intervention in young women. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19(6):754-760.
  • .Lindberg JS, Copley JB, Koenig KG, et al. Effect of citrate on serum aluminum concentrations in hemodialysis patients: a prospective study. South Med J 1993;86(12):1385-1388.
  • .Lipkin M, Newmark H. Calcium and the prevention of colon cancer. J Cell Biochem Suppl 1995;22:65-73. (Review)
  • .Liu RH, Albrecht J, Werth VP. Cross-sectional study of bisphosphonate use in dermatology patients receiving long-term oral corticosteroid therapy. Arch Dermatol 2006;142:37-41.
  • .Liu T, Soong SJ, Wilson NP, et al. A case control study of nutritional factors and cervical dysplasia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1993;2(6):525-530.
  • .Lloyd T, Andon MB, Rollings N, et al. Calcium supplementation and bone mineral density in adolescent girls. JAMA 1993;270:841-844.
  • .Lloyd T, Johnson-Rollings N, Eggli DF, et al. Bone status among postmenopausal women with different habitual caffeine intakes: a longitudinal investigation. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19(2):256-261.
  • .Lloyd T, Petit MA, Lin HM, et al. Lifestyle factors and the development of bone mass and bone strength in young women. J Pediatr 2004;144(6):776-782.
  • .Lloyd T, Rollings NJ, Kieselhorst K, et al. Dietary caffeine intake is not correlated with adolescent bone gain. J Am Coll Nutr 1998;17(5):454-457.
  • .Lloyd T, Schaeffer JM, Walker MA, et al. Urinary hormonal concentrations and spinal bone densities of premenopausal vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54(6):1005-1010. Erratum in Am J Clin Nutr 1992;56(5):954.
  • .Lovell DJ, Glass D, Ranz J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of calcium supplementation to increase bone mineral density in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2006;54(7):2235-2242.
  • .Lukert BP, Raisz LG. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: pathogenesis and management. Ann Intern Med 1990;112(5):352-364.
  • .Ma J, Giovannucci E, Pollak M, et al. Milk intake, circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-I, and risk of colorectal cancer in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93(17):1330-1336.
  • .Macallan DC, Maxwell JD, Eastwood JB. Osteomalacia should be sought and treated before withdrawal of anticonvulsant therapy in UK Asians. Postgrad Med J 1992;68(796):134-136.
  • .Malabanan AO, Holick MF. Vitamin D and bone health in postmenopausal women. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2003;12(2):151-156. (Review)
  • .Malavolta N, Pratelli L, Frigato M, et al. The relationship of vitamin D status to bone mineral density in an Italian population of postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 2005;16(12):1691-1697.
  • .Marchbanks CR. Drug-drug interactions with fluoroquinolones. Pharmacotherapy 1993;13(2 Pt 2):23S-28S.
  • .Marcovitz PA, Tran HH, Franklin BA, et al. Usefulness of bone mineral density to predict significant coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 2005;96(8):1059-1063.
  • .Marshall RW, Cochran M, Hodgkinson A. Relationships between calcium and oxalic acid intake in the diet and their excretion in the urine of normal and renal-stone-forming subjects. Clin Sci 1972;43(1):91-99.
  • .Martini LA, Cuppari L, Colugnati FA, et al. High sodium chloride intake is associated with low bone density in calcium stone-forming patients. Clin Nephrol 2000;54(2):85-93.
  • .Martini LA, Wood RJ. Should dietary calcium and protein be restricted in patients with nephrolithiasis? Nutr Rev 2000;58(4):111-117.
  • .Matkovik V. Calcium metabolism and calcium requirements during skeletal modelling and consolidation of bone mass. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54(Suppl):245S-259S.
  • .Matkovic V, Goel PK, Badenhop-Stevens NE, et al. Calcium supplementation and bone mineral density in females from childhood to young adulthood: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81(1):175-188.
  • .Mazariegos-Ramos E, Guerrero-Romero F, Rodriquez-Moran M, et al. Consumption of soft drinks with phosphoric acid as a risk factor for the development of hypocalcemia in children: a case-control study. J Pediatr 1995;126(6):940-942.
  • .McCarron DA, Lipkin M, Rivlin RS, et al. Dietary calcium and chronic diseases. Med Hypotheses 1990;31:265-273.
  • .McCarron DA, Morris CD. The calcium deficiency hypothesis of hypertension. Ann Intern Med 1987;107:919-922.
  • .McCarron D, Reusser M. Finding consensus in the dietary calcium-blood pressure debate. J Am Coll Nutr 1999;18:398S-405S.
  • .McClung MR, San Martin J, Miller PD, et al. Opposite bone remodeling effects of teriparatide and alendronate in increasing bone mass. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1762-1768.
  • .McLean R. Magnesium and its therapeutic uses: a review. Am J Med 1994;96(1):63-76. (Review)
  • .Medeiros DM, Bock MA, Ortiz M, et al. Vitamin and mineral supplementation practices of adults in seven western states. J Am Diet Assoc 1989;89(3):383-386.
  • .Meier C, Woitge HW, Witte K, et al. Supplementation with oral vitamin D3 and calcium during winter prevents seasonal bone loss: a randomized controlled open-label prospective trial. J Bone Miner Res 2004;19(8):1221-1230.
  • .Merenich JA, Georgitis WJ, Clark JR. Failure of cimetidine to reduce postoperative hypocalcemia in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism undergoing neck exploratory operation. Surgery 1993;113(6):619-623.
  • .Meunier P. Prevention of hip fractures by correcting calcium and vitamin D insufficiencies in elderly people. Scand J Rheumatol Suppl 1996;103:75-80.
  • .Miller GD, DiRienzo DD, Reusser ME, et al. Benefits of dairy product consumption on blood pressure in humans: a summary of the biomedical literature. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19(2 Suppl):147S-164S.
  • .Miller GD, Jarvis JK, McBean LD. The importance of meeting calcium needs with foods. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20(2 Suppl):168S-185S. (Review)
  • .Miller P. Change in bone mineral density (BMD) and fracture risk reduction in teriparatide-treated women with osteoporosis. Abstract 1223. The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) 27th Annual Meeting. Nashville,Sep 24, 2005.
  • .Minerals. In: Drug facts and comparisons. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons; 2000:27-51. (Review)
  • .Mocanu V, Stitt PA, Costan AR, et al. Long term efficacy and safety of high vitamin D intakes as fortified bread. A59. Experimental Biology 2005 Meeting.San Diego, Apr 2, 2005.
  • .Montie T, Patamasucon P. Aminoglycosides: the complex problem of antibiotic mechanisms and clinical applications. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995;14:85-87. (Editorial)
  • .Moore CE, Murphy MM, Holick MF. Population-based study of vitamin D intake in the United States. Experimental Biology 2005 Meeting. San Diego, Apr 2, 2005.
  • .Moore TJ. The role of dietary electrolytes in hypertension. J Am Coll Nutr 1989;8(Suppl):68S-80S.
  • .Murray TM. Prevention and management of osteoporosis: consensus statements from the Scientific Advisory Board of the Osteoporosis Society of Canada:4:calcium nutrition and osteoporosis. CMAJ 1996;155(7):935-939. (Review)
  • .NAMS Consensus. Consensus opinion: the role of calcium in peri-and postmenopausal women: consensus opinion of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2001;8(20):84-95.
  • .National Institutes of Health. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. NIH Consensus Statement. 2000;17(1):1-36. Available at http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/111/111_statement.htm Accessed August 1, 2003.
  • .Nelson-Piercy C. Heparin-induced osteoporosis in pregnancy. Lupus 1997;6(6):500-504. (Review)
  • .Nesbitt LT Jr. Minimizing complications from systemic glucocorticosteroid use. Dermatol Clin 1995;13(4):925-939. (Review)
  • .Neugut AI, Horvath K, Whelan RL, et al. The effect of calcium and vitamin supplements on the incidence and recurrence of colorectal adenomatous polyps. Cancer 1996;78:723-728.
  • .New SA, Bolton-Smith C, Grubb DA, et al. Nutritional influences on bone mineral density: a cross sectional study in premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:1831-1839.
  • .Nicar MJ, Pak CY. Calcium bioavailability from calcium carbonate and calcium citrate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;61(2):391-393.
  • .Nicklas TA. Calcium intake trends and health consequences from childhood through adulthood. J Am Coll Nutr 2003;22(5):340-356. (Review)
  • .NIH Consensus Development Panel. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA 2001;285(6):785-795.
  • .Nix DE, Wilton JH, Schentag JJ, et al. Inhibition of norfloxacin absorption by antacids and sucralfate. Rev Infect Dis 1989;II(Suppl 5):S1096.
  • .Nolan CR, Califano JR, Butzin CA. Influence of calcium acetate or calcium citrate on intestinal aluminum absorption. Kidney Int 1990;38(5):937-941.
  • .North American Menopause Society. The role of calcium in peri- and postmenopausal women: 2006 position statement of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2006;13(6):859-862.
  • .Novotny R, Boushey C, Bock MA, et al. Calcium intake of Asian, Hispanic and white youth. J Am Coll Nutr 2003;22(1):64-70.
  • .Nuzzo V, Lupoli G, Esposito Del Puente A, et al. Bone mineral density in premenopausal women receiving levothyroxine suppressive therapy. Gynecol Endocrinol 1998;12(5):333-337.
  • .O’Brien KO, Donangelo CM, Zapata CL, et al. Bone calcium turnover during pregnancy and lactation in women with low calcium diets is associated with calcium intake and circulating insulin-like growth factor 1 concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83(2):317-323.
  • .O’Brien KO, Nathanson MS, Mancini J, et al. Calcium absorption is significantly higher in adolescents during pregnancy than in the early postpartum period. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78(6):1188-1193.
  • .O’Keane V, Meaney AM. Antipsychotic drugs: a new risk factor for osteoporosis in young women with schizophrenia? J Clin Psychopharmacol 2005;25(1):26-31.
  • .O’Neill S, MacLennan A, Bass S, et al. Guidelines for the management of postmenopausal osteoporosis for GPs. Aust Fam Physician 2004;33(11):910-919.
  • .O’Regan S, Chesney RW, Hamstra A, et al. Reduced serum 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D3 levels in prednisone-treated adolescents with systemic lupus erythematosus. Acta Paediatr Scand 1979;68(1):109-111.
  • .Osborne CG, McTyre RB, Dudek J, et al. Evidence for the relationship of calcium to blood pressure. Nutr Rev 1996;54(12):365-381. (Review)
  • .Ovbiagele B, Liebeskind DS, Starkman S, et al. Are elevated admission calcium levels associated with better outcomes after ischemic stroke? Neurology 2006;67(1):170-173.
  • .Peacock M, Liu G, Carey M, et al. Effect of calcium or 25OH vitamin D3 supplementation on bone loss at the hip in men and women over the age of 60. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 2000;85(9):3011-3019.
  • .Pearce SH, Thakker RV. The calcium-sensing receptor: insights into extracellular calcium homeostasis in health and disease. J Endocrinol 1997;154(3):371-378.
  • .Penland JG, Johnson PE. Dietary calcium and manganese effects on menstrual cycle symptoms. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:1417-1423.
  • .Petti S, Cairella G, Tarsitani G. Nutritional variables related to gingival health in adolescent girls. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2000;28(6):407-413.
  • .Pietinen P, Malila N, Virtanen M, et al. Diet and risk of colorectal cancer in a cohort of Finnish men. Cancer Causes Control 1999;10:387-396.
  • .Pittas A, Dawson-Hughes B, Li T, et al. Vitamin D and calcium intake in relation to type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2006;29:650-656.
  • .Pluskiewicz W, Nowakowska J. Bone status after long-term anticonvulsant therapy in epileptic patients: evaluation using quantitative ultrasound of calcaneus and phalanges. Ultrasound Med Biol 1997;23(4):553-558.
  • .Pols HA, Felsenberg D, Hanley DA, et al. Multinational, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of the effects of alendronate on bone density and fracture risk in postmenopausal women with low bone mass: results of the FOSIT study:Foxamax International Trial Study Group. Osteoporos Int 1999;9(5):461-468.
  • .Porthouse J, Cockayne S, King C, et al. Randomised controlled trial of vitamin supplementation with calcium and cholecalciferol (vitamin D) for prevention of fractures in primary care. BMJ 2005;330:1003-1006.
  • .Potter JD. Nutrition and colorectal cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:127-146.
  • .Potts JT. Diseases of the parathyroid gland and other hyper- and hypocalcemic disorders. In: Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, et al, eds. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Health Professional Division; 1998:2241.
  • .Power ML, Heaney RP, Kalkwarf HJ, et al. The role of calcium in health and disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181(6):1560-1569. (Review)
  • .Prentice A. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of osteoporosis. Public Health Nutr 2004;7(1A):227-243. (Review)
  • .Prentice A, Ginty F, Stear SJ, et al. Calcium supplementation increases stature and bone mineral mass of 16-18 year old boys. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:3153-3161.
  • .Prentice A, Parsons TJ, Cole TJ. Uncritical use of bone mineral density in absorptiometry may lead to size-related artifacts in the identification of bone mineral determinants. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60: 837-842.
  • .Prince RL, Devine A, Dhaliwal SS, et al. Effects of calcium supplementation on clinical fracture and bone structure. results of a 5-year, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in elderly women. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:869-875.
  • .Prince R, Devine A, Dick I, et al. The effects of calcium supplementation (milk powder or tablets) and exercise on bone density in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 1995;10(7):1068-1075.
  • .Quarum ML, Houghton DC, Gilbert DN, et al. Increasing dietary calcium moderates experimental gentamicin nephrotoxicity. J Lab Clin Med 1984;103(1):104-114.
  • .Rao DS. Perspective on assessment of vitamin D nutrition. J Clin Densitom 1999:2(4):457-464.
  • .Rapkin A. A review of treatment of premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003;28(Suppl 3):39-53. (Review)
  • .Recker RR, Davies MK, Hinders SM, et al. Bone gain in young adult women. JAMA 1992;268:2403-2408.
  • .Reid IR, Ames RW, Evans MC, et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on bone loss in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1993;328:460-464.
  • .Reid IR, Ames RW, Evans MC, et al. Long term effects of calcium supplementation on bone loss and fractures in postmenopausal women: a randomised controlled trial. Am J Med 1995;98:331-335.
  • .Reid IR, Ibbertson HK. Corticosteroids and osteoporosis. Aust N Z J Med 1987;17(6):611-612. (Letter)
  • .Reijman M, Bierma-Zeinstra SM, Pols HA, et al. Is there an association between the use of different types of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and radiologic progression of osteoarthritis? The Rotterdam Study. Arthritis Rheum 2005;52(10):3137-3142.
  • .Reunanen MI, Sotaniemi EA, Hakkarainen HK. Serum calcium balance during early phase of diphenylhydantoin therapy. Int J Clin Pharmacol Biopharm 1976;14(1):15-19.
  • .Ringe JD, Becker K. [Osteoporosis caused by long term heparin therapy.] Med Monatsschr Pharm 1985;8(3):80-83. [German]
  • .Ritchie LD, King JC. Dietary calcium and pregnancy-induced hypertension: is there a relation? Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(5 Suppl):1371S-1374S.
  • .Robinson C, Weigly E. Basic nutrition and diet therapy. New York: MacMillan, 1984.
  • .Roe DA. Diet and drug interactions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold;1989.
  • .Roe DA. Drug-induced nutritional deficiencies. 2nd ed. Westport, CT: Avi Publishing;1985.
  • .Roe DA. Risk factors in drug-induced nutritional deficiencies. In: Roe DA, Campbell T, eds. Drugs and nutrients: the interactive effects. New York: Marcel Decker;1984:505-523.
  • .Rozen P, Fireman Z, Fine N, et al. Oral calcium suppresses increased rectal epithelial proliferation of persons at risk of colorectal cancer. Gut 1989;30(5):650-655.
  • .Rozen P, Lubin F, Papo N, et al. Calcium supplements interact significantly with long-term diet while suppressing rectal epithelial proliferation of adenoma patients. Cancer 2001;91(4):833-840.
  • .Rude RK, Gruber HE, Oldham SB. Cortisone-induced osteoporosis: effects on bone adenylate cyclase. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1993;19(2):71-77.
  • .Ruml LA, Sakhaee K, Peterson R, et al. The effect of calcium citrate on bone density in the early and mid-postmenopausal period: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Am J Ther 1999;6:303-311.
  • .Rupp WM, McCarthy HB, Rohde TD, et al. Risk of osteoporosis in patients treated with long-term intravenous heparin therapy. Curr Surg 1982;39(6):419-422.
  • .Ryan CW, Huo D, Demers LM, et al. Zoledronic acid initiated during the first year of androgen deprivation therapy increases bone mineral density in patients with prostate cancer. J Urol 2006;176(3):972-978.
  • .Ryder KM, Shorr RI, Bush AJ, et al. Magnesium intake from food and supplements is associated with bone mineral density in healthy older white subjects. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005;53(11):1875-1880.
  • .Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Volmer WM, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. N Engl J Med 2001;344:3-10.
  • .Sakhaee K, Bhuket T, Adams-Huet B, et al. Meta-analysis of calcium bioavailability: a comparison of calcium citrate with calcium carbonate. Am J Ther 1999;6:313-321.
  • .Sakhaee K, Ruml L, Padalino P, et al. The lack of influence of long-term potassium citrate and calcium citrate treatment in total body aluminum burden in patients with functioning kidneys. J Am Coll Nutr 1996;15(1):102-106.
  • .Salamoun MM, Kizirian AS, Tannous RI, et al. Low calcium and vitamin D intake in healthy children and adolescents and their correlates. Eur J Clin Nutr 2005;59(2):177-184.
  • .Salazar T, Barrera F, Capurro MT, et al. [Serum concentrations of phenobarbital and the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in children.] Rev Chil Pediatr 1984;55(6):407-410. [Spanish]
  • .Sambrook PN. Glucocorticoid osteoporosis. Curr Pharm Des 2002;8(21):1877-1883. (Review)
  • .Sambrook P. Vitamin D and fractures: quo vadis? Lancet 2005;365(9471):1599-1600. (Editorial)
  • .Satia-Abouta J, Galanko JA, Martin CF, et al. Associations of micronutrients with colon cancer risk in African Americans and whites: results from the North Carolina Colon Cancer Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003;12(8):747-754.
  • .Schaafsma A, Pakan I, van der Veer E. Positive effects of a chicken eggshell powder-enriched vitamin-mineral supplement on femoral neck bone mineral density in healthy late post-menopausal Dutch women. Br J Nutr 2002;87(3):267-275.
  • .Schacht E, Richy F, Reginster JY. The therapeutic effects of alfacalcidol on bone strength, muscle metabolism and prevention of falls and fractures. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2005;5(3):273-284. (Review)
  • .Schousboe JT, Nyman JA, Kane RL, et al. Cost-effectiveness of alendronate therapy for osteopenic postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med 2005;142(9):734-741.
  • .Sergeev IN. Calcium as a mediator of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3)-induced apoptosis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2004;89-90:419-425.
  • .Service FJ. Idle thoughts from an addled mind. Endocr Prac 2002;8:135-136.
  • .Shea B, Wells G, Cranney A, et al. Osteoporosis Methodology Group:Osteoporosis Research Advisory Group:calcium supplementation on bone loss in postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(1):CD004526. (Review)
  • .Sheikh MS, Santa Ana CA, Nicar MJ, et al. Gastrointestinal absorption of calcium from milk and calcium salts. N Engl J Med 1987;317:532-536.
  • .Sheth RD, et al. Children treated for epilepsy have significant reduction in bone mineral density. Abstract 2.211. The American Epilepsy Society 59th Annual Meeting.Washington, DC, Dec 9, 2005.
  • .Siris ES. Utilization and correlates of osteoporosis treatment in postmenopausal women: observations from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment (NORA). Abstract M378. American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) 27th Annual Meeting.Nashville, Sep 26, 2005.
  • .Skalska A, Gasowski J, Stepniewski M, et al. Antioxidative protection in hypertensive patients treated with diuretics. Am J Hypertens 2005;18(8):1130-1132.
  • .Solomon DH, Avorn J, Katz JN, et al. Compliance with osteoporosis medications. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:2414-2419.
  • .Sonn GA, Aronson W, Litwin MS. Impact of diet on prostate cancer: a review. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2005;8(4):304-310.
  • .Specker BL. Evidence for an interaction between calcium intake and physical activity on changes in bone mineral density. J Bone Miner Res 1996;11(10):1539-1544.
  • .Steingrimsdottir L, Gunnarsson O, Indridason OS, et al. Relationship between serum parathyroid hormone levels, vitamin D sufficiency, and calcium intake. JAMA 2005;294:2336-2341.
  • .Stepan JJ, Alenfeld F, Boivin G, et al. Mechanisms of action of antiresorptive therapies of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Endocr Regul 2003;37(4):225-238. (Review)
  • .Storm D, Eslin R, Porter ES, et al. Calcium supplementation prevents seasonal bone loss and changes in biochemical markers of bone turnover in elderly New England women: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83(11):3817-3825.
  • .Summey BT, Yosipovitch G. Glucocorticoid-induced bone loss in dermatologic patients: an update. Arch Dermatol 2006;142:82-90. (Review)
  • .Sutton RA. Diuretics and calcium metabolism. Am J Kidney Dis 1985;5(1):4-9. (Review)
  • .Talbot JR, Guardo P, Seccia S, et al. Calcium bioavailability and parathyroid hormone acute changes after oral intake of dairy and nondairy products in healthy volunteers. Osteoporos Int 1999;10(2):137-142.
  • .Teegarden D, Legowski P, Gunther CW, et al. Dietary calcium intake protects women consuming oral contraceptives from spine and hip bone loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90(9):5127-5133.
  • .Teucher B, Majsak-Newman G, Dainty JR, et al. Calcium absorption is not increased by caseinophosphopeptides. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:162-166.
  • .Thatcher TD, Fischer PR, Pettifor JM, et al. A comparison of calcium, vitamin D, or both for nutritional rickets in Nigerian children. N Engl J Med 1999;341:563-568.
  • .Threlkeld DS, ed. Blood modifiers, anticoagulants, heparin. In: Facts and comparisons drug information. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons;1997.
  • .Threlkeld DS, ed. Hormones, thyroid hormones. In: Facts and comparisons drug information. St Louis: Facts and Comparisons;1991.
  • .Thys-Jacobs S. Micronutrients and the premenstrual syndrome: the case for calcium. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19(2):220-227.
  • .Thys-Jacobs S, Ceccarelli S, Bierman A, et al. Calcium supplementation in premenstrual syndrome: a randomized crossover trial. J Gen Intern Med 1989;4:183-189.
  • .Thys-Jacobs S, Donovan D, Papadopoulos A, et al. Vitamin D and calcium dysregulation in the polycystic ovarian syndrome. Steroids 1999;64:430-435.
  • .Torkos S. Drug-nutrient interactions: a focus on cholesterol-lowering agents. Int J Integrative Med 2000;2(3):9-13. (Review)
  • .Trivedi DP, Doll R, Khaw KT. Effect of four monthly oral vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) supplementation on fractures and mortality in men and women living in the community: randomised double blind controlled trial. BMJ 2003;326:469-475.
  • .Trovato A, Nuhlicek DN, Midtling JE. Drug-nutrient interactions. Am Fam Physician 1991;44(5):1651-1658. (Review)
  • .Tucker KL. Dietary intake and bone status with aging. Curr Pharm Des 2003;9(32):2687-2704. (Review)
  • .Valimaki MJ, Tiihonen M, Laitinen K, et al. Bone mineral density measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and novel markers of bone formation and resorption in patients on antiepileptic drugs. Bone Miner Res 1994;9(5):631-637.
  • .van den Elzen HJ, Wladimiroff JW, Overbeek TE, et al. Calcium metabolism, calcium supplementation and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1995;59(1):5-16.
  • .Vargas Zapata CL, Donangelo CM, Woodhouse LR, et al. Calcium homeostasis during pregnancy and lactation in Brazilian women with low calcium intakes: a longitudinal study. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:417-422.
  • .Vieth R. Critique of the considerations for establishing the tolerable upper intake level for vitamin D: critical need for revision upwards. J Nutr 2006;136(4):1117-1122. (Review)
  • .Vieth R. Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:842-856.
  • .Vieth R, Kimball S, Hu A, et al. Randomized comparison of the effects of the vitamin D3 adequate intake versus 100 mcg (4000 IU) per day on biochemical responses and the wellbeing of patients. Nutr J 2004;3(1):8.
  • .Viljakainen HT, Natri AM, Karkkainen M, et al. A positive dose-response effect of vitamin D supplementation on site-specific bone mineral augmentation in adolescent girls: a double-blinded randomized placebo-controlled 1-year intervention. J Bone Miner Res 2006;21(6):836-844.
  • .Villar J, Abdel-Aleem H, Merialdi M, et al. World Health Organization randomized trial of calcium supplementation among low calcium intake pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;194(3):639-649.
  • .Wactawski-Wende J, Kotchen JM, Anderson GL, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2006;354(7):684-696.
  • .Ward K, et al. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) of calcium supplementation in school-children and gymnasts. Abstract SA008. The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) 27th Annual Meeting. Nashville, Sep 24, 2005.
  • .Ward MW, Holimon TD. Calcium treatment for premenstrual syndrome. Ann Pharmacother 1999;33(12):1356-1358.
  • .Warshaw BL, Anand SK, Kerian A, et al. The effect of chronic furosemide administration on urinary calcium excretion and calcium balance in growing rats. Pediatr Res 1980;14(10):1118-1121.
  • .Weaver CM, Heaney RP. Calcium. In: Shils M, Olson JA, Shike M, et al, eds. Nutrition in health and disease. 9th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1999:141-155.
  • .Weaver CM, Proulx WR, Heaney R. Choices for achieving adequate dietary calcium with a vegetarian diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70(3 Suppl):543S-548S.
  • .Weinberger MH, Wagner UL, Fineberg NS, et al. The blood pressure effects of calcium supplementation in humans of known sodium responsiveness. Am J Hypertens 1993;6:799-805.
  • .Weingarten MA, Zalmanovici A, Yaphe J. Dietary calcium supplementation for preventing colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(1):CD003548. (Review)
  • .Weinsier RL, Krumdieck CL. Dairy foods and bone health: examination of the evidence. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72(3):681-689. (Review)
  • .Weisberger UM, Boeing H, Owen RW, et al. Effect of long-term placebo controlled calcium supplementation on sigmoidal cell proliferation in patients with sporadic adenomatous polyps. Gut 1996;38:396-402.
  • .Werbach MR. Foundations of nutritional medicine. Tarzana, CA: Third Line Press;1997. (Review)
  • .Whelan RL, Horvath KD, Gleason NR, et al. Vitamin and calcium supplement use is associated with decreased adenoma recurrence in patients with a previous history of neoplasia. Dis Colon Rectum 1999;42:212-217.
  • .White E, Shannon JS, Patterson RE. Relationship between vitamin and calcium supplement use and colon cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997;6:769-774.
  • .Wilson JD. Vitamin deficiency and excess. In: Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, et al, eds. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Health Professional Division; 1998:483-485.
  • .Winzenberg T, Shaw K, Fryer J, et al. Effects of calcium supplementation on bone density in healthy children: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2006;333(7572):775. (Review)
  • .Wishart JM, Clifton PM, Nordin BE. Effect of perimenopause on calcium absorption: a longitudinal study. Climacteric 2000;3(2):102-108.
  • .Wu WH, Kang YP, Wang NH, et al. Sesame ingestion affects sex hormones, antioxidant status, and blood lipids in postmenopausal women. J Nutr 2006;136(5):1270-1275.
  • .Wyshak G, Frisch RE. Carbonated beverages, dietary calcium, the dietary calcium/phosphorus ratio, and bone fractures in girls and boys. J Adolesc Health 1994;15(3):210-215.
  • .Xu L, McElduff P, D’Este C, et al. Does dietary calcium have a protective effect on bone fractures in women? A meta-analysis of observational studies. Br J Nutr 2004;91(4):625-634. (Review)
  • .Zemel MB. Dietary calcium, calcitrophic hormones, and hypertension. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 1994;4:224-228.
  • .Zemel MB, Shi H, Greer B, et al. Regulation of adiposity by dietary calcium. FASEB J 2000;14(9):1132-1138.
  • .Zhou W, Park S, Liu G, et al. Dietary iron, zinc, and calcium and the risk of lung cancer. Epidemiology 2005;16(6):772-779.